VIETNAM (Viet-Nam), Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cong hoa Хa hoi chu nghia Viet-Nam), is a state in the southeastern, eastern part of the Indochina Peninsula (15% of the peninsula's area). It borders on the north with, and on the west. In the south and east it is washed by the waters of the South China Sea and the bays of Bakbo and Siam. Area 332.6 thousand km2. The territory of Vietnam also includes a significant number of islands located in the South China Sea: Phu Quoc (568 km 2), Cat Ba (180 km 2), Con Dao (56 km 2). Population 54 million (1981 estimate). The capital is Hanoi (2.57 million inhabitants in 1979). Administratively, Vietnam consists of 36 provinces, 3 centrally subordinate cities (Hanoi, Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City) and one district special purpose(Vung Tau Con Dao). The largest city is Ho Chi Minh City (3.4 million inhabitants in 1979). Official language— Vietnamese. The monetary unit is dong. Vietnam - member (since 1978).

General characteristics of the farm. Industry and handicraft production in Vietnam account for more than 50% of the total gross industrial and agricultural output (1980). The country has significant mineral resources for industrialization. The main industries are metalworking and mechanical engineering, mining, electric power, woodworking, and textile production. Handicraft industry is developed. In 1981, 3845 million kWh of electricity was produced. Imports are important for the development of the country's national economy, contributing to the technical re-equipment of economic sectors. Through imports, Vietnam satisfies its needs for many types of machinery and equipment, petroleum products, rolled ferrous and non-ferrous metals, etc. The length of railways is about 1 thousand km (being reconstructed), roads 40.5 thousand km, river shipping routes 6 thousand km ( 1970). The largest ports: Ho Chi Minh City, Haiphong, Da Nang, Hong Gai, Kam Pha.

Nature. The territory of Vietnam is almost entirely located within the tropical zone of the Northern Hemisphere. The banks are mostly low and slightly indented. Most of the territory of Vietnam is occupied by mountain ranges (the maximum absolute elevation is 3143 m - the city of Fansipan) and only in the far north and south there are low-lying areas confined to the deltas of large rivers - Hong Ha (Red) and Mekong. The climate is subequatorial monsoon, with hot winters in the south (25.6°C) and cool winters in the north (16.6°C) and a pronounced maximum precipitation during the wet monsoon. Precipitation is over 1500 mm per year (in some places – over 3000 mm). All rivers of Vietnam belong to the South China Sea basin. They help meet the water needs of agriculture and industry and contribute to the development of water transport, contain enormous hydropower resources. The country's largest rivers are Hong Ha, Da, Ma and Mekong. More than 30% of the country's area is occupied by natural tropical forests. There are woodlands and savannas. The forests of Vietnam are not homogeneous, mixed, with valuable species.

Geological structure. Vietnam is located at the junction of and. Separate parts of the territory of Vietnam are associated with the following large regional tectonic units - the Catasian Caledonian mobile part, the East Indochina (North Vietnamese) folded system, the Indosinian middle massif, and the West Indochina (Laotian-Malayan) folded system. The peculiarities of the geological structure make it possible to divide the territory of the republic into four regions.

Northeastern Bakbo belongs to the mobile margin of the South China Plate and the southwestern end of the Catasian system. Formations of the ancient foundation of the platform (granitoids) are covered by Upper Proterozoic and Paleozoic. Along the northeastern coast of Bakbo Bay (southwest of the Catasian system) there are terrigenous-effusive deposits, and are strongly folded with the formation of the lower fold complex. volcanic-sedimentary and terrigenous strata perform separate and. Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic acidic and basic compositions are associated with. In this part of the country, deposits have been established in Late Triassic, titanomagnetite ores associated with gabbroids, in Mesozoic intrusions, hydrothermal and in Permo-Triassic granitoids and acidic volcanics, in sediments, and with granites of the Cretaceous-Paleogene age and in modern and etc. and are installed in Hanoi, and the waters of Bac Bo Bay are potentially promising for and.

Northwestern Bakbo and northern Chungbo are Early Hercynian and Indosinian (Late Triassic) geosynclinal-folded systems. Northern Chungbo is composed of terrigenous and volcanogenic formations of the Lower Paleozoic and Devonian with large concordant massifs of granitoids; Upper Paleozoic carbonate sediments form the nappes. Northwestern Bakbo is characterized by special Permo-Triassic ophiolite formations transformed into the block-fold zone of the Indosinian complex. Chromites in - were found here, formed due to the destruction of serpentinized harzburgites; ore deposits associated with differentiated and gabbro-norite intrusions; deposits of ores of rare earth elements, and - with alkaline intrusions of the Late Cretaceous, Paleogene; hydrothermal-metasomatic deposits of copper ores and rare earth elements, deposits of pyrite ores - with volcanogenic formations. In northern Chungbo, ore deposits have been established in skarns of Mesozoic granitoids. Here, ore occurrences and deposits associated with Triassic and Cretaceous-Paleogene granitoids, hydrothermal deposits of lead and zinc ores in and near fault zones, etc. have been discovered.

Central Chungbo is occupied by the Indosinian Median Massif (with the prominence of the Kontum Plateau). (Proterozoic) crystalline formations of the basement of the massif in some areas are covered by strata. Cenozoic plateau basalts are widespread here. The intrusions are dominated by Paleozoic and Mesozoic granitoids. In this area there are known deposits in crystalline shales of the basement, lateritic bauxites in basalts, gold in quartz among Precambrian rocks, ore occurrences of lead, zinc, etc.

The southern Chungbo-Nambo region belongs to the West Indochina geosynclinal-folded system, which is composed of a complex of folded Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanic-sedimentary formations with widespread Early and Late Mesozoic granitoids. Large areas are occupied by Cenozoic loose sediments of the Mekong delta trough and plateau basalt covers. Tin ore occurrences have been established here, and in connection with the Late Mesozoic granitoids, bauxite deposits in the weathering crusts of basalts, etc. Oil and gas have been discovered in the adjacent Neogene troughs of the South China Sea.

Hydrogeology and engineering geology. Porous and karst structures are developed in the mountain structures of Vietnam. fresh waters, which feed numerous springs. There are three main aquifer complexes: Quaternary sedimentary, Carboniferous-Triassic carbonate-sedimentary and Neogene-Quaternary basaltic. Hundreds of springs and hydrothermal waters with temperatures of 36-80°C, sometimes 95-100°C, have been identified. For some areas, the conditions for exploiting these waters are difficult (small, deep water).

In engineering and geological terms, the territory of Vietnam is divided into mountainous, hilly and flat areas. In the mountainous and hilly regions, landslide processes, landslides, mudflows and karst phenomena are observed, in the plains there are phenomena of subsidence, washout of sediments, swamping and erosion of river banks; In some places there are outlets of high-pressure waters that penetrate into the basins of structures and into.

The territory of the country lies on a relatively stable substrate. However, sometimes they happen with a force of up to 6-7 points, very rarely up to 8-9 points.

Minerals. Vietnam is one of the richest countries in terms of reserves and diversity Indochinese Peninsula. Deposits of over 60 types of valuable minerals have been discovered: oil and gas, coal, iron ores, manganese, tin, copper, lead, zinc, rare earth elements, bauxite, various building materials, etc., which is an important prerequisite for creating reliable raw materials bases for industrial development (see map).

Oil and gas deposits were discovered within the shelf of South Vietnam, in the Neogene deposits of the Hanoi Depression in the north of the country. Both areas are located in the vast Cenozoic trough of the South China Sea, which is very promising, but little studied.

Most of the coal deposits are located in the northeast of the country. Coal grades range from brown to anthracite. The main coal basin is Quang Ninh (Hong Gai) of late Triassic age (northeastern Vietnam), where a section of coal strata with a total thickness of 1500-1700 m contains about 30 with an average thickness of 2.7-10.7 m. Geological reserves reach 5-6 billion tons , incl. explored 2 billion tons. Main: Kokshau (reserves 500 million tons), Deonai (250), Hatu (350), Kaoshon (400), Maoxe (381), Wang Giang (about 400). Neogene coals are represented by brown varieties and are located mainly in the Hanoi depression. The productive part of the coal-bearing strata with a thickness of more than 300 m contains about 40 coal seams with an average thickness of 1-2 m. Estimated reserves are estimated at several tens of billions of tons. The engineering and hydrogeological conditions of coal development are complex. Deposits occur in Quaternary deposits.

Ferrous metal ores. Numerous manifestations and deposits of various genetic types are known, which are located mainly in the northeast and west of the country. The total ore reserves are estimated at 1 billion tons. Skarn deposits are of greatest industrial importance; the largest of them is Thach Khe (Nget Tinh province), whose reserves are estimated at 500-600 million tons of ore with a Fe content of over 60%. Chromium ores have been identified in placers of Quaternary deposits and in bedrock; their proven reserves amount to tens of millions of tons. All of them are concentrated in the Thanh Hoa region. Small deposits of manganese ores (Toktak, Langbai) and titanium are known.

Non-ferrous metal ores. are represented by bauxites of two genetic types. In northeastern Vietnam, sedimentary bauxites are known (Tap Na, Dong Dang, Mameo deposits), overlying carbonate rocks of Late Permian age. The main ore-forming minerals are with a content of Al 2 O 3 40-56%, SiO 2 1-12%. Reserves reach 100 million tons of ore. In the south of Vietnam, lateritic bauxites are found in the weathering crusts of Neogene-Quaternary basalts (Van Khoa, Dak Nong, Buna, Bao Loc). The main ore - with a content of Al 2 O 3 35-49%, SiO 2 1-8%, the thickness of the deposits varies from 2 to 10 m. The forecast reserves of lateritium bauxites are estimated at several billion tons. They are represented by segregation sulfide copper-nickel deposits associated with, and hydrothermal-metasomatic copper-sulfide deposits with, rare earth elements and. Proven copper reserves exceed 1 million tons. At the Xin Quyen deposit (northeastern Vietnam), proven copper reserves amount to 550 thousand tons with an average Cu content of 1.07%. The deposits are located within three tin mining districts in northeastern Bakbo and northern Chungbo. The predicted reserves of tin ore reach several hundred thousand tons. The main reserves are associated with alluvial deposits. Explored placer reserves amount to several tens of thousands of tons of tin. The content in placers ranges from 200 to 2000 g/m3, averaging 400-500 g/m3. Bedrock ores have been studied extremely poorly. Ores of rare earth elements (mainly the cerium group) have predicted reserves of several million tons (for the amount of oxides of rare earth elements) with a content of these oxides from 2 to 10%. There are known deposits and occurrences of lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, gold, molybdenum, tungsten, radioactive elements, etc., among which only some deposits of lead, zinc and antimony have been explored. In the Tödien and Langhit deposits, the total reserves of lead and zinc reach 569 thousand tons, the Langbai deposit has antimony reserves of 60 thousand tons.

Mining chemical raw materials. Highest value have deposits. Apatite deposits are concentrated in the zone of development of Late Precambrian - Early Cambrian deposits along the right bank of the Hong Ha River (Lao Cai deposit). The thickness of apatite layers varies from several meters to tens of meters. The P 2 O 5 content ranges from 8 to 41%. Apatite reserves reach several billion tons, of which about 400 million tons have been explored.

Non-metallic industrial raw materials and non-metallic building materials. On the territory of Vietnam, deposits of pyrophyllite, graphite, quartz sand, etc. have been explored. Kaolin deposits are represented by two main genetic types: weathering and hydrothermal (kaolinite and pyrophyllite). Kaolin reserves (weathering deposits) are estimated at 27 million tons. Reserves of the Tan Mai pyrophyllite deposit (Quang Ninh Province) are established at 5 million tons. Graphite deposits are available in the Nam Thi, Maya, and Nuong Khuong regions. They are associated with crystalline shales and processed by hydrothermal-metasomatic processes. The explored reserves of the three deposits are 5 million tons, the forecast reserves are 10-15 million tons with the ore content ranging from 8 to 35%.

Precious stones in Vietnam are found in various formations: in basalts (,), (garnet, corundum, sphene), pegmatites and hydrothermal veins (, smoky, etc.). The most common are rich accumulations (forecast reserves are estimated at hundreds of kilograms).

Mining. Historical sketch. Metals have been used in Vietnam since the late 2nd millennium BC. (Dongshon culture). Periodic primitive mining of ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, tin and other metals continued until the end of the 9th century. AD In the 10th century intensive development of mining began, caused by the increased need for metals for the production of tools, weapons, coins, etc. In the 14th century. The extraction of zinc ores increases (since 1323 it has been used for making coins), in the 16th-18th centuries. — red copper (about 450 tons of metal were produced annually at the Tulong deposit). In 1839, coal mining began in the country. In the 1st half of the 20th century. its annual volume averaged 1.5 million tons. Thus, in 1913-40, about 40 million tons of coal were mined (mainly from the deposits of the Quang Nin basin). During the same period, 337 thousand tons of zinc ores were obtained (in terms of metal) (at the deposits of Tödien, Langhit, etc.), 40 thousand tons of tin, 360 thousand tons of iron and manganese ores, 280 thousand tons of phosphates, as well as 5 thousand tons tungsten ores (in terms of oxides) - deposits of Tintuk, Piaoak, etc. High rates of development of the mining industry were noted in 1928-29. Exports of mineral raw materials during this period amounted to 0.5% of its total volume in Indochina.

general characteristics. The mining industry accounts for 5% of GNP (1982). Deposits of 30 types of minerals are being developed on a relatively small scale.

The greatest importance in the structure of the mining industry is the extraction of coal, iron ores, tin, chromium, apatite, etc. (Table). The country pays great attention to the development of the industry based on the reconstruction and construction of new mining and processing enterprises, equipping them with modern mining equipment. (For the location of mountain objects, see the map.)

Coal mining in the country (and) is carried out on a small scale - in 1980, 5.3 million tons of coal were produced. The level of production is explained by the fact that the coal industry is in the recovery stage (since 1973). The main coal-mining region is Quang Ninh Province. The development is carried out by enterprises mainly of three coal associations: Hong Gai in Quang Ninh province - Deonai, Hatu, Kok Shau, Thong Nyang, Ha Lam, Kaoshon deposits; Wangbi in the same province - Wang Giang, Maoxe; Bak Thai - Hapyoanui-Hong deposits (in Bak Thai province), Na Duong (Lang Son). The production capacity of the largest ones is about 0.5-1 million tons per year, up to 1 million tons. The products of the enterprises are of high quality - the calorific value of anthracite is 33.6-35.7 MJ/kg, 14.5-16%, S content 0.4%. The country, with the assistance of the CMEA member countries, is carrying out technical re-equipment of the industry. Dump trucks have also begun to be used in quarries, and excavation and other mining equipment is being introduced in mines. A further increase in coal production is planned. A project is being developed to reconstruct the Maoxe mine, bringing its annual production capacity to 2.1 million tons.

Iron ore mining is carried out in Bak Thai province. Since 1963, the Chaikau deposit has been developed, where 360 ​​thousand tons of ore are produced (1979). The raw materials are supplied to the Thai Nguyen metallurgical plant. Chromium ores are mined in Thanh Hoa province at the Co Dinh deposit, which has been exploited since 1956. Of the deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, only tin and antimony are mined. Non-ferrous metallurgy is a new industry in Vietnam. The first enterprises for the extraction and production of tin and antimony were built in the 1950-1970s.

The largest mining enterprises are the Tin Thuk and Son Duong mines. The first was built and put into operation in 1955, in the 60-70s it was reconstructed with an increase in annual production capacity to 900 tons of tin concentrate per year. The Son Duong mine annually produces about 200 tons of tin concentrate. The main mining transport equipment is excavators and dump trucks. Gravity enrichment is used for ore processing.

The development of apatite deposits in the country began in 1940 at the Laokai deposit, then production was suspended; resumed in the 50s at the Cam Duong mine. The enterprise was restored and modernized with technical assistance. In 1963, the production of apatite concentrate here reached 925 thousand tons. In the early 80s, the mine was the largest mining enterprise of its kind in Southeast Asia. Its concentrate production capacity reached 1 million tons (1982). The product contains 35% P 2 O 5 .

During the Second World War (1939-45), the development of phosphorite deposits also began in the country. Minerals were extracted by hand (from a depth of about 2 m), crushed and used to produce fertilizers. Modern development of phosphate deposits provides raw materials for the large superphosphate plant at Lam Thao.

In Vietnam, the non-metallic building materials industry has been created and is developing (over 500 small enterprises). Development of deposits of limestone, granite, sand, pebbles - open pit. The largest production is in the provinces of Hanam Ninh (since 1960), Haiphong (since 1970), and others. The quarries are part of the building materials association. The industry provides the industry with the necessary raw materials. Large companies operate on its basis cement factories in Binh Son (built with the help of CCCP), Hoang Thak (with technical assistance from Denmark), as well as the rehabilitated and expanded Hai Phong and Ha Tien plants. The total capacity of cement production enterprises is 705 thousand tons (1979).

Mining engineering. In Vietnam, small quantities of impact-rope drilling machines, screens for sorting coal, equipment for enriching coal by gravity and flotation methods, etc. are produced. There are factories for the production and repair of mining equipment in Kam Pha, Yen Vien and Vinh Phu. Mining and drilling equipment and vehicles imported mainly from socialist countries, and primarily from the CCCP.

Subsoil protection and land reclamation. Importance of the security issue environment was reflected in the first Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1946). In the early 80s, organizations for the protection of the environment and mineral resources operated in Vietnam. State control is exercised by the Department for the Protection of Mineral Resources under the Main Geological Directorate.

Geological Survey. Scientific institutions. Personnel training. Seal. The exploration and development of mineral deposits in Vietnam is the responsibility of the General Geological Administration, the Ministry of Mining and Coal Industry, and the Ministry of Mechanical Engineering and Metallurgy. Scientific research in the field of geology and mining is carried out at the Institute of Geosciences (National Center for Scientific Research of Vietnam, established in 1976), the Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources (General Geological Administration, 1976), the Institute of Non-ferrous Metallurgy and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information for Mechanical Engineering and metallurgy (Ministry of Mechanical Engineering and Metallurgy, 1967), Institute for Planning and Design of Coal Mining and Coal Research (Ministry of Mining and Coal Industry, 1967), Institute of Oil and Gas (1980). Training of personnel in mining and geological specialties is carried out by the Hanoi Mining and Geological Institute (1966), geological faculties of universities in Hanoi (since 1967), Ho Chi Minh City (until 1975) and the Polytechnic Institute in Ho Chi Minh City (since 1977), geological and technical schools (since 1962) .

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Geographical location and nature

State of South East Asia. In the west it borders with Laos (border length 1,555 km) and Cambodia (982 km), in the north with China (1,281 km), in the east and south Vietnam is washed by the waters of the South China Sea. The total length of the border is 3818 km, the length of the coastline is 3444 km. The total area of ​​the country is 329,566 km2 (land area is 325,360 km2). The country's territory is a narrow strip stretching from north to south. In the north is the Yunnan Highlands with the highest point of the country - Mount Fansipan (3,143 m), crossed by the valley of the Hongha (Red) River. To the south are the Annam Mountains chain. A narrow coastal plain stretches parallel to it from north to south. In the south lies the flat area of ​​the Mekong River Delta. Main natural resources: iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, wood; oil and gas deposits have been discovered in the Vietnamese sector of the shelf zone of the South China Sea. 22% of the country's territory is used for arable land; forests and shrubs occupy 40% of all land.

Population

The population is 74,393,324 people (1995), the average population density is 225 people per km 2. The residents are dominated by Vietnamese (86% of the population), the Chinese make up 3% of the population, other ethnic groups are Muong, Thai, Meo, Chamk, Khmer, Man. The official language is Vietnamese, French, English, Chinese, Khmer are also common. Among the believers there are Buddhists, Confucians, Taoists, Catholics, Muslims, Protestants, and adherents of local pagan beliefs. Birth rate - 26.25 newborns per 1,000 people (1995). Mortality - 7.6 deaths per 1,000 people (infant mortality rate - 44.6 deaths per 1,000 births). Average life expectancy: men - 64 years, women - 68 years (1995).

The country's climate is subequatorial in the south, monsoon in the north, with hot and rainy summers (from mid-May to mid-September) and mild winters (from mid-October to mid-March). Typhoons often occur on the coast of Vietnam (in the northern part of the country in June-July, in the central part in August, in the southern part in September-October). On average, precipitation falls from 1,500 to 3,000 mm per year.

Vegetable world

About 40% of the country's territory is covered with tropical mixed forests, in which deciduous tree species (ironwood and sandalwood), vines, bamboo, and pine grow. River delta areas are characterized by dense mangroves.

Animal world

The forests of Vietnam are home to monkeys, squirrels, tigers, leopards, and there are also elephants, bears, and deer. A wide variety of birds, many reptiles, including crocodiles, lizards, snakes.

State structure, political parties

Full name - Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV). The government system is a republic. The country is divided into 50 provinces and 3 municipalities. The capital is Hanoi. Independence was gained on September 2, 1945 from France, this day is celebrated as a National Holiday. Executive power belongs to the president (head of state), prime minister (head of government - the Council of Ministers). Legislative power is exercised by a unicameral parliament - the National Assembly. The ruling party - the Communist Party of Vietnam - is the only political party in the country.

Economics, transport communications

In a centralized economy, state ownership of the means of production predominates. GNP was in 1994. $83.5 billion (GNP per capita - $1,140). Output per capita is one of the lowest in the world. The basis of the economy is agriculture (it accounts for half of the GNP and employs 70% of the working population). The main agricultural crop is rice; corn, cassava, sorghum, and sweet potatoes (yam) are produced in large quantities; important commercial crops are rubber, soybeans, coffee, tea. Most of the mineral resources are concentrated in the north, including coal, which is an important export. Oil was discovered at south coast in 1986, currently oil and rice are the main export commodities. The most developed industries are food, textile, mining, oil, and mechanical engineering. As a result of government reforms, private sector economic activity has increased. The monetary unit is dong (1 dong (D) is equal to 100 su). Main trading partners: Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, France, North Korea.

The total length of railways is 3,059 km, roads - about 85,000 km, inland waters railway tracks - 17,702 km. Main sea ​​ports: Danang, Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City.

The first state on the territory of modern Vietnam was Van Lang (1st century BC), which was later replaced by the kingdoms of Aulak and Nam Viet (3rd century BC). In 221, Vietnam fell under the rule of the Chinese emperors and remained part of the Chinese Empire until 939. In 968, Ding Po Li proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Vietnamese state of Dai Viet. The Ly Dynasty ruled the country until 1225, when power in the country passed to the Tran Dynasty. In 1406, Chinese troops again occupied the country, but in 1427 the Vietnamese, having driven out the invaders, regained their independence. At the beginning of the 17th century. Vietnam was divided into two parts - North and South - ruled by the Trinh and Nguyen dynasties, respectively. At this time, the first Europeans appeared in the country - the Dutch, the British, and in the 18th century. - French people. In 1802, the Nguyen dynasty united the entire empire, calling it Vietnam. In 1858, under the pretext of protecting Christians and missionaries, France sent troops to Vietnam, and in 1884 Vietnam effectively became a French protectorate. In 1940-1945. the country was occupied by Japanese troops. After liberation in 1946, Vietnam was proclaimed the Republic of Indochina. In December 1946, the Indochina War began, as a result of which France lost Vietnam in 1954, as well as other colonies - Laos and Cambodia. According to the Geneva Accords, Vietnam was divided into two states. In the south of the country the Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed, and in the northern part of the country in 1959 the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was formed, headed by the prominent political figure Ho Chi Minh. In the 60s An armed conflict began between the two Vietnamese states, which gradually escalated into a large-scale war, in which the United States of America intervened, supporting the government of South Vietnam. The war ended with the signing of the Paris Ceasefire Agreement in 1973, but the conflict continued until the fall of the Saigon regime in 1975. The official unification of North and South Vietnam into a single state took place in July 1976. In the 90s. The country began to liberalize the economy, which made it possible to achieve significant economic growth and improve the living standards of the population.

The content of the article

VIETNAM, Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), a state in the eastern part of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It borders on the north with China, on the west with Laos and Cambodia, and is washed by the South China Sea and its Gulfs of Bakbo (Tonkin) and Siam. The state consists of three historical areas: Northern (Bakbo), Central (Chungbo) and Southern (Nambo). During the rule of the French from the end of the 19th century. they were respectively called Tonkin, Annam and Cochin.

In 1945, the Vietnamese Independence League (Viet Minh) announced the formation of the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In the War of Resistance (1946–1954), the Vietnamese forced French troops to leave Indochina as a result of their victory at Dien Bien Phu. The war ended with the signing of an agreement between the fighting parties. The country was divided along the 17th parallel. The partition was recognized as temporary, but the planned elections for the purpose of unifying Vietnam never took place. The northern part of the country became the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, or Northern Vietnam, with a territory of 158,335 square kilometers. km, where about half of the total population lived. The capital of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was the city of Hanoi. The other part, the Republic of Vietnam, or South Vietnam, occupied an area of ​​173,354 square meters. km. The capital was in Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City). War broke out between North and South Vietnam in the late 1950s, and fighting became widespread in the 1960s. The war ended in 1975 with the victory of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On July 2, 1976, the official unification of North and South Vietnam took place and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was formed.

NATURE

Terrain.

The territory of Vietnam is elongated in the meridional direction (the distance between the extreme northern and southern points is about 1750 km), and in the latitudinal direction its length ranges from 616 km in the north (from Mong Khai to the Vietnamese-Laotian border) to 46.5 km in the central part ( in the Chungbo area). The length of the coastline, which resembles the letter S, is 3260 km. Vietnam's position at the intersection of several natural areas, as well as the presence of an ancient geological structure, determine the diversity of its natural conditions. The country's terrain is mostly mountainous. More than three-quarters of the territory is occupied by mountains, plateaus and plateaus. Vietnam also owns islands and archipelagos. The largest of them are Baiti Long, Koto, Cat Ba, Con Dao in the South China Sea, Phu Quoc in the Gulf of Thailand, etc. The area of ​​the continental shelf is approx. 500 thousand sq. km. Vietnam is separated from neighboring countries mountain ranges.

From the northern border of the country, the Hoang Lien Son ridge (translated as “Main Mountain Range”) stretches in a southeastern direction, forming the watershed of the Hong Kha (Red) and Da rivers. Within this ridge throughout approx. 200 km there are several peaks with elevations of more than 2500 m, including the highest mountain in Indochina Fansipan (3143 m). Further to the west, right up to the border with Laos, a series of lower parallel ridges with peaks from 1600 to 2100 m can be traced. The right tributaries of the Hong Ha River, crossing the Hoang Lien Son Mountains, have narrow canyon-like valleys. Although the mountain slopes are usually covered with forest, landslides, rockfalls and mudflows are common during the rainy season.

South of the 20th parallel along the border with Laos and Cambodia, the Truong Son Mountains (“Long Mountains”) stretch for 1200 km, having steep eastern slopes and gradually descending to the west, towards the Mekong River valley. The highest point, Mount Sailileng (2711 m), is located in the northwest, on the border with Laos. Structurally, North and South Truong Son are clearly distinguished. Northern Truong Son is a series of ridges stretching at different angles towards the coast. Rivers flowing from the mountains carry their waters in the southeastern and eastern directions.

Southern Truong Son is formed by a system of ridges, highlands, plateaus and valleys. To the south of the 15th parallel there is a group of peaks with heights of more than 2000 m. The highest of them is Ngo Klinh Peak, composed of granites (2598 m). Between 11 and 12° N latitude. individual peaks reach 2100 m. The most extensive plateaus of Southern Truong Son - Kontum, Pleiku, Dar Lak, Lang Biang and Zilin - are united under the general name Taing Guen (“Western Plateaus”). Their average heights are 500–1000 m. These plateaus are composed of basaltic lavas, among which rise picturesque cones of extinct volcanoes. Mount Hamrong (“Dragon’s Mouth”) on the Pleiku Plateau stands out in particular. Numerous rivers belonging to the Mekong basin or flowing directly into the ocean originate from these plateaus. Some ridges of Southern Truong Son come close to the coast of the South China Sea.

The plains in Vietnam account for only a quarter of the total territory, but it is there that the main economic activity. The most extensive plains are formed by the deltas of the Hong Ha River in the north and the Mekong River in the south. Between them stretches a chain of narrow coastal plains and deltas of relatively small rivers. The total flow volume of Vietnamese rivers is 785 cubic meters. km, with more than 76% occurring in the Mekong (475 cubic km) and Hong Kong (121 cubic km) river basins. Other large rivers are Ma, Ka, Thubon.

Plain area of ​​approx. 15 thousand sq. km in the lower reaches of the Hong Ha River (its length in Vietnam is about 510 km) is composed of Holocene alluvium, which was deposited at the bottom of an ancient shallow bay. The absolute height of the delta surface is less than 25 m. Exceptionally fertile soils have formed on alluvial deposits. Only on the northern and southern periphery of this plain is more ancient alluvium distributed. In some places there are outlier mountains composed of limestone, sand dunes and sea terraces. Due to the large volume of solid river runoff, their deltas annually extend up to 100 m into the sea. Since the Hong Ha delta has been inhabited for several millennia, the natural vegetation cover has been largely destroyed and it has undergone significant anthropogenic changes. Over many centuries, approx. 3000 km of dams. Hong Ha, like other rivers of the Bac Bo region (Da, Lo, Thai Binh), is characterized by a sharp drop in level during the rainy and dry seasons - from 30 thousand to 700 cubic meters. m.

The Mekong Delta (its length within Vietnam is 250 km), on the contrary, is largely untouched by humans, especially in the northwest (Dong Thap province) and in the extreme south (Ca Mau Peninsula). Delta area – approx. 50 thousand sq. km. It was also formed as a result of the deposition of river sediments in a sea bay that once extended to the Phnom Penh area. In fact, the Mekong delta region begins near the Cambodian capital, the channel of which downstream is divided into two main branches - the Mekong itself and the Bassac. In turn, these water arteries, passing through the territory of Vietnam for a third of their way to the sea, are divided into seven more channels. Two other rivers, Kadong and Dong Nai, took part in the formation of a single alluvial lowland. The Mekong is also called Cuu Long (“9 dragons”) in Vietnam. The river carries a lot of suspended sediment, especially in the southern channels, and the rate of advance of land onto the sea reaches an average of 60–80 m per year. The Mekong Delta has the world's densest hydrographic network, including systems of artificial canals. Movement of people in this area is carried out almost exclusively by sampan boats. Active development of the Mekong Delta began about 300 years ago, and currently 60% of all rice and most of the fruits harvested in the country are produced here.

The narrow ribbon coastal plains of the Trung Bo region arose as a result of the accumulative activity of watercourses flowing from the eastern slopes of the Truong Son Mountains. Almost all provincial boundaries run along river channels. The coastal strip is divided by spurs of mountain ranges and ridges of hills into isolated, small-area lowlands, the largest of which, in the north of Thanh Hoa province, occupies an area of ​​3,200 square meters. km.

Vietnam has large reserves of hydropower resources. For example, the energy potential of the Hong Kha River is at least 1.5–2 million kW. On the Da (Chernaya) river, with the assistance of the USSR, the largest hydroelectric power station in Vietnam, Hoa Binh, was built.

A special attraction of Vietnam is Ha Long Bay in the Gulf of Bac Bo (Tonkin), recognized by UNESCO as one of the wonders of the world. Scattered across the azure sea of ​​this bay are 1,600 small islands and rocks of bizarre shapes reminiscent of fighting cocks, frogs, ritual vases, etc. On rocky islands there are caves with stalactites and stalagmites. On the sea coasts of Vietnam with beaches of white and golden sand are located resort areas Vung Tau, Nha Trang, Do Son, etc.

Climate.

Vietnam is divided into three climatic regions: North, Central and South. Due to the diversity of relief and changes in wind direction throughout the year, significant internal differences can be observed in the regions themselves.

The northern region, extending north of 18° N, is characterized by humid, hot summers during the equatorial monsoon blowing from the Pacific Ocean, and damp, cool winters when cold northwest winds take their toll. On the plains, including deltas, the average temperatures of the three winter months are 17–20 ° C. But there are days when the thermometer drops below 5 ° C. In the vicinity of Hanoi, located at an absolute altitude of approx. 5 m, in the coolest time of the year the air warms up to 14–16 ° C, at night the temperature can drop to 2.7 ° C. In the mountains, winters are long and severe; frosts occur in the border ridges. In the Shapa area, at an altitude of approx. 1570 m, and in other elevated places it sometimes even snows. From late January to mid-March, constant drizzle is common.

There is a summer, rainy season, lasting from April to October. From July to September, approximately 80% of the annual precipitation falls (in Hanoi, 300 mm in each of these months). In the hottest months, the average maximum air temperature in the capital is 31–32 ° C, and the recorded absolute maximum is 42.8 ° C. Since the difference between the average maximum and average minimum temperatures is 14–16 °, the climate of the northern region cannot be called tropical. However, soils, vegetation and animal world have a distinctly tropical character. In the Northern region, areas of primary tropical forests have been preserved, in which trees reach a height of 50–55 m.

In contrast, the Southern region, located west of 108° E. and south of 13° S, has a typical tropical monsoon climate. Northern winds do not penetrate southern Vietnam, so the temperature is stable throughout the year. In the Mekong Delta, for example, average temperatures are 26–27° C, their amplitude between the hottest and coolest months does not exceed 3–4°. Based on moisture availability, there are two seasons – wet and dry. During the first, starting in April-May and ending in October-November, more than 90% of the annual precipitation (equal to approximately 2000 mm) usually falls, and during the second - only 7%. Sometimes there are droughts. Sometimes typhoons hit the coast.

The climate of the Central region is significantly influenced by the Truong Son mountains and their spurs, which serve as a barrier that prevents the penetration of humid southwestern winds in summer. The rains begin in August and reach their maximum intensity in October-November, when clear weather sets in in other areas of the country. It happens that the wet period lasts until January. The northern half of this climatic region, primarily the eastern ridges and foothills of Truong Son, and to a lesser extent the coastal plains, receive more precipitation, up to 3000–3500 mm on average per year. Located on a mountain plateau at a level of 1800 m famous resort Dalat, where the air temperature does not exceed +25° C all year round.

The destruction of forests led to the intensification of destructive floods on the rivers of the Chungbo region. During the wet season, powerful typhoons are often intruded, the strength of which decreases towards the south. The winter months are quite cool in the area located between 16 and 20° N latitude. In January the air temperature is below 20° C. South of 16° N. latitude. It is warm all year round and the temperature regime is similar to the conditions of southern Vietnam.

Minerals.

The subsoil of Vietnam, especially its northern and northwestern regions, is rich in minerals. The most important among them is occupied by oil and gas discovered in the Hong Ha and Mekong river basins, mainly on the continental shelf. The results of geological exploration work carried out within the Hanoi Trough indicate the presence of significant reserves of natural gas. It is estimated that the total oil reserves on the continental shelf are approximately 2.5 billion tons. Coal reserves are estimated at 130 billion tons, of which 5.2 billion tons are hard coals, 125 billion tons are brown coals. The largest coal deposit in Southeast Asia is in Quang Ninh province (approximately 12–15 billion tons). There are deposits of iron ore, manganese, lead, bauxite, zinc, copper, chromium, graphite, asbestos, barium, mica, feldspar, gold, silver, titanium ores, and rare earth metals. There is industrial mining of tin (Tintuk in the Bakbo region), there are huge reserves of apatite (Laokai in Bakbo - up to 1 billion tons).

Soils.

Soil formation processes in Vietnam in a humid tropical climate occur very intensively throughout the year. As a result, soil profiles several meters thick are formed. Zonal soils of Vietnam are various types of laterites (red soils, yellow soils, mountain laterites). The most fertile soils are formed on volcanic rocks. Greatest economic importance have azonal alluvial soils of the plains, especially the Mekong and Hong Ha deltas. Many low-lying areas are swampy and bog soils are common there. Nai large areas Such soils are concentrated in the Mekong Delta. In coastal areas, the soils are saline in places.

Vegetable world.

A significant part of Vietnam's territory, mainly in the mountains, is covered with forests (7.8 million hectares). Total timber reserves are estimated at 565.6 million cubic meters. m. Operating wood reserves amount to 226 million cubic meters. m. The zonal types of vegetation in Vietnam are mainly secondary moist evergreen tropical forests, and in those areas in the south of the country where rainfall is much less, savannas and open-standing tropical forests. Areas of primary tropical rainforest also remain. Many valuable tree species grow in Vietnam: iron, black, rose, camphor, ebony, sandalwood, etc., over 30 types of bamboo are common. 76 species of forest plants produce aromatic substances, 600 species produce tannin, 200 species produce dyes, and 260 species produce oil. The raw materials for various industries are red shellac, cinnamon, anise, and pine extract.

Due to the predominance mountainous terrain In addition to the latitudinal zonality of vegetation, its altitudinal zonation is also expressed. The lower parts of the mountains (up to altitudes of 800–1000 m in Nambo and 600–700 m in the cooler Bakbo) are covered with tropical moist evergreen forests. Above them, up to 1700–2000 m above sea level, broad-leaved subtropical mountain forests grow with an undergrowth of various bamboos, and even higher mixed forests appear, where, in addition to oak, maple and ash, coniferous species are found.

Mangroves are widespread in the coastal zone: in Nambo they reach a height of 25–30 m, in Bakbo – 2–3 m. The total area of ​​mangroves is approx. 400 thousand hectares, of which 300 thousand are located in Nambo and the southern part of Chongbo. Coconut palm groves are common in the lowlands of the country. On the plateau in the southwestern region there are savanna forests and savannas with thickets of tough grasses and bamboo.

Animal world

Vietnam has approx. 170 species of mammals, approximately 970 species of birds, 270 species of reptiles, more than 1000 species of marine and freshwater fish. The coastal waters are home to crabs, shrimp, and shellfish. In the tropical forest zone, panthers, leopards, tigers, monkeys (macaques and gibbons), bears, tree civets, flying squirrels, large monitor lizards, white and green parrots, pheasants, and peacocks are common. Rhinoceroses are occasionally seen. Lots of snakes (boa constrictors, cobras, etc.), turtles, lizards. Indian elephant, antelope, deer, buffalo, wild boar, eagles, and partridges live in savannah forests and savannahs. Pink flamingos, storks, pelicans, herons, wild ducks, and geese live in river deltas and swamps. The flooded fields are teeming with fish and small crabs. There are many freshwater fish in rivers and lakes.

Marine resources are diverse and conducive to the development of not only fishing, but also tourism and recreation. Marine fish reserves in the shelf zone are estimated at approximately 3 million tons per year, and shrimp at 65 thousand tons. The reserves of shellfish, seaweed and other seafood are significant.

In order to preserve wildlife and rare plants (including medicinal ones), 87 specially protected areas with a total area of ​​750 thousand hectares are being created in Vietnam, incl. 7 national parks, 80 reserves and reserves. The area of ​​protected areas on the Taing Guen Plateau will be approx. 240 thousand hectares. It is planned to create national parks in the area of ​​the Babe reservoir, on Con Dao Island and in other areas.

POPULATION

Demographic data.

According to a 2003 estimate, the country has 81.62 million inhabitants belonging to 54 ethnic groups. More than 64% are Vietnamese aged 15 to 64 years. Women make up 51% of the population. The average life expectancy in the country is 70.05 (men - 67.58, women - 72.7). The population growth rate in 2003 was estimated at 1.29%.

Relatively complete demographic statistics date back to 1995. Then, out of 72,916 thousand inhabitants, 14,566 thousand lived in cities, and 58,350 thousand people lived in rural areas (in the North, 5,250 thousand and 31,450 thousand, respectively, and in the South, 9,316 thousand . and 26,900 thousand people). The country's population in 1990–1995 increased by an average of 2.4% per year, with this figure being 2.6% in villages and 1.5% in cities.

In the northern part of Vietnam, population growth was estimated at 2.2% in rural areas and 3% in urban settlements (in the delta region of the Hong Ha River, 1.8% and 3.4%, respectively); in the south - 3.1 and 0. 7%. Thus, the process of urbanization in the Mekong Delta has effectively stopped. Moreover, in the areas where the three largest centers (Ho Chi Minh City, Bien Hoa and Vung Tau) and the administrative centers of four provinces are located, the village population increased by an average of 4.4% in the first half of the 1990s. The significant rate of urbanization in North Vietnam was partly a consequence of land scarcity and limited opportunities for agricultural development.

Ethnic composition and languages.

When the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was proclaimed in 1945, there were up to 70 nationalities in the country. Linguistically, they belong to three families: Sino-Tibetan, Austroasiatic and Austronesian, and are further divided into a number of groups. Noticeable differences are also observed in the lifestyle and economic practices of ethnic groups. Some peoples have been engaged in arable rice cultivation for hundreds and thousands of years, others have been engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture, and others have led a semi-nomadic lifestyle, earning their livelihood by gathering, hunting and fishing.

Until 1945, Vietnamese were primarily called the inhabitants of the plains. IN Lately The ethnonym “Viet” became the most common ethnonym, and “Vietnamese” refers to all residents of Vietnam. In 2003 the Vietnamese amounted to approx. 85/90% of the country's population, the Muong, who are close to them in culture and language, live in the highlands of Bac Bo and Nghe An province, the Chinese, Thais and others made up 5-15%. There are two other large ethnic communities settled on the plains: Chinese and Khmer (Cambodian). The Chinese, who number approx. 1 million people are concentrated primarily in the former city of Sholon (“Telon”, i.e. “Big Market”), which has turned into a large district of Ho Chi Minh City, and control up to 40% of the national capital in Vietnam. Khmers, numbering approx. 850 thousand people, settled mainly in the Mekong delta region and in Ho Chi Minh City.

Other peoples of Vietnam are distributed into the following language families and groups: Austroasiatics who speak Thai languages ​​- Thai, Nung, Thai, Lao, Zey, Santiay (Shantyai), Ly, Bui; in the languages ​​of the Meo-Zao group - Meo (Hmong), Zao; in Mon-Khmer languages ​​- living in the southwestern part of the country are the Bakhnars, Sedangs, Mnongs, Ma, Kokho, Khre, Stiengi, Khmu. The Pleiku and Darlak plateaus are home to peoples who speak Malayo-Polynesian languages ​​of the Austronesian family - Jarai, Ede, Raglai, Tyuru, Ede-Bih. The language of the Malayo-Polynesian group is also spoken by the Chams (Chams), the now few descendants of the ancient people of rice farmers who created in the 2nd century. AD in the territory of present-day Chungbo, the state of Champa (Champa) and a vibrant culture that was under strong Indian influence. The Sino-Tibetan language family is also represented by the Tibeto-Burman branch: Hani, Fula, Lahu, Lolo.

Religion.

Vietnamese society is prone to religious syncretism. This is reflected in the fact that the community house (ding), which also serves as the village temple, displays altars with a pantheon of various local tutelary spirits and numerous images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, Confucius and historical figures. Buddhist temples often worship not only the Buddha, but also local deities and spirits. In almost every peasant home you can see two altars - one dedicated to the ancestors, and the other to the Spirit of the Earth (Ong Dia).

The majority of Vietnamese, regardless of religious preferences and political views, believe that preserving the memory of their ancestors is their moral and religious duty. The grave is a refuge for the dead, but in fact they are not dead: when a person becomes deceased, his soul continues to exist. The living and the dead live in the same world, but exist in different forms. Therefore, ancestors take part in the daily affairs of their descendants and protect them, sometimes visiting them during sleep or warning them of impending danger. Due to the fact that the souls of ancestors play such an important role in the destinies and well-being of descending generations, filial and daughter responsibilities require long mourning for the dead, taking care of sacrifices and maintaining graves and cemeteries in order.

At the beginning of the 20th century. In those areas of the Mekong basin where colonization and development of agricultural lands took place, two new religious sects arose: Cao Dai (“Supreme Palace”) and Hoa Hao (“Harmony and Nobility”). The first of them adheres to the syncretic doctrine, the canon of which is based on the teachings of Buddha, Christ, Confucius, Victor Hugo, Leo Tolstoy, etc. The symbol of the Cao Dai sect is the so-called. “Heavenly Eye”, and is headed by its own “dad”, who lives in Tay Ninh province, in the western part of the Mekong Delta. The second syncretic organization, Hoahao, adheres to a combination of the ideas of Buddhism, Taoism and a number of other religious movements. In the 1940s and early 1950s, both sects laid claim to territorial spheres of influence and maintained their own police forces. However, in the mid-1950s, taking advantage of American financial and military support, Ngo Dinh Diem managed to undermine their military and political positions. In the 1990s, there were still approximately 1 million supporters of Caodaism in the country and approx. 0.5 million followers hoahao.

The mountain peoples of Vietnam have retained early primitive beliefs, some of the Chams (Chams) adhere to Hinduism, the other part – Islam.

In 1998 in Vietnam there were approx. 2 million Catholics. There are few Protestants in Vietnam, mainly representatives of mountain peoples.

STATE STRUCTURE

Central authorities.

According to the 1992 constitution, the highest body of state power is the unicameral National Assembly, consisting of 450 deputies who are elected for a five-year term by direct universal suffrage. The National Assembly consists of 498 deputies since 2002.

The duties of parliamentarians include the “appointment, suspension and dismissal” of the president, vice-president and prime minister (only members of the National Assembly are nominated for these positions), as well as the chairman of the Supreme People's Court and other senior officials of the state. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and heads the National Defense and Security Council. The President has the right to appoint, with the consent of the National Assembly, officials to a number of responsible positions, including the posts of Chairman of the Supreme People's Court and Prosecutor General. The term of office of the president is 5 years. The Prime Minister, who is responsible for the day-to-day activities of the government, appoints and dismisses cabinet members, but always with the approval of the National Assembly. The head of government can cancel or suspend the execution of decrees and decisions adopted at the level of ministries and departments, and is accountable to the highest legislative body of the country.

The President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam since September 1997 is Tran Duc Luong, re-elected for a new term in 2002. Born in 1937, he studied geology in the USSR, worked as a metallurgical engineer. From 1981 he was a member of the National Assembly, from 1987 vice-president of Vietnam, and in 1996 elected to the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

The post of head of government has been occupied by Pham Van Hai since 1997. Born in 1933, studied in the USSR, after returning to Vietnam he made a party career. In 1985 he became the head of the people's committee in Ho Chi Minh City, and in 1991 he was elected to the Politburo of the Communist Party. He headed the State Planning Commission and served as first deputy head of government. Pham Van Hai is considered a pragmatist and proponent of reform.

Local authorities.

Administratively, Vietnam consists of 61 provinces, one special district and four cities of central subordination: Hanoi, Haiphong, Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon, merged with the “upper city” of Sholon). In these cities and provinces there are people's councils - government bodies elected by the population. Their term of office is 4 years. The provinces are divided into districts, in which, like everywhere else in cities and villages (communities), there are people's councils elected by the population. Since 1997, provinces and other administrative-territorial units have been granted the right to engage in foreign trade operations.

Political parties.

The ruling Communist Party of Vietnam was created in February 1930 at a unifying conference of communist groups that had existed since the 1920s, held in exile in Hong Kong. Ho Chi Minh became the leader of the party. In October 1930 it was renamed the Communist Party of Indochina (CPI). The political program of the CPC provided for the overthrow of French colonial power, the creation of an independent republic and the development of a “bourgeois-democratic” revolution into a “socialist” one. The First Congress of the Communist Party of Industrialists and Communists took place in March 1935 in exile in Macau. Communists worked actively underground. From 1941 they began preparing an armed uprising. In August 1945, the communists and the Viet Minh front formed under their auspices organized an armed uprising, seized power and proclaimed the creation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which since 1946 has been at war with the former colonial metropolis, France. At the Second Congress of the CPI in February 1951, it was transformed into the Vietnamese Workers' Party (VWP). The Chairman of the Central Committee was the President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh, who remained in this post until his death in 1969. The PTV program proclaimed the main objectives of the expulsion of the imperialists, achieving the independence and unity of Vietnam, the destruction of colonialism and feudalism, and the creation of the “foundations of socialism.” After the division of the country into North and South in 1954, the northern part of Vietnam came under the rule of the PTV.

The Third Congress of the PTV in September 1960 proclaimed a course towards “building socialism” and reunifying the country. In the South, the communists operated under the name of the People's Revolutionary Party. After winning the war with the United States and defeating the government of South Vietnam in 1975, the Vietnamese communists held the IV Congress in Hanoi in December 1976, renamed the PTV the Communist Party of Vietnam and declared that a “socialist revolution” was underway in the country. Le Duan became the general secretary of the CPV, and remained so until his death in 1986. In 2001, the CPV had 2.4 million members. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) is the only party in the country, since the Democratic and Socialist parties ceased to exist in 1988. Among other political organizations, the Fatherland Front of Vietnam, created in 1955 and which included the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam in 1977, stands out (1960– 1977) and the Union of National, Democratic and Peace Forces of South Vietnam (1968–1977). The Fatherland Front of Vietnam also includes the Communist Party, the General Confederation of Workers (established in 1976), the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union (established in 1931), the Women's Union of Vietnam (established in 1930) and other organizations. The leadership of the executive committees of the Fatherland Front and other mass associations, for example the General Confederation of Workers, the General Peasant Union and the Women's Union, have the right to attend meetings of people's councils and committees at various levels and express their point of view on issues of local life.

Although the constitution states that the Communist Party of Vietnam is the “leading force of the state and society,” the party itself is limited in its actions by the “framework of the constitution and law.” Moreover, partly due to changes made to the Basic Law, there has been an expansion of the real rights of the president, prime minister and National Assembly. As a result of this, and also thanks to institutional innovations, many functions from the center were transferred to legislative and executive bodies in the provinces. According to a joint document between the Ministry of Finance and the CPV Financial Control Committee, dated September 1998, the budgets of party organizations at all levels, from national to rural, are 1.5–2 times higher than the total budgets of all government institutions.

Judicial system

includes the Supreme People's Court in Hanoi and subordinate people's courts in provinces and major cities. The National Assembly may, in special cases, for example, when national security interests are affected, by its decision create a special judicial body. The Supreme People's Court exercises control over the work of subordinate institutions. Representatives of national minorities have the right to use their native language in court. There are people's inspectorates at the state and provincial levels and in the army, each of which is led by responsible prosecutors. They perform the tasks of monitoring the implementation of the law in government agencies, private organizations, military personnel and civilians. The judge considers cases during trials together with a council of people's assessors, consisting of 5–9 people. There are over 10 thousand such councils in the country.

Law enforcement agencies.

Information regarding the Vietnamese People's Army and other security forces is strictly classified. In November 1998, the National Assembly voted for “transparency” of information in the field of public administration, after which the government developed a detailed program to familiarize the public with the issues of financing the services and departments it manages (it does not apply to the army, internal security agencies and party organizations). The number of military personnel in the country is estimated at approximately 0.5 million people, and security personnel at 2 million people.

Foreign policy.

As of 1998, Vietnam was recognized by more than 160 countries around the world. Relations with China were restored in 1991, with the United States in July 1995, and in the same month Vietnam became a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Within this organization, Vietnam held a high-level meeting in 1998 to discuss the Asian “financial crisis” and other issues. Vietnam is a member of the UN (since 1977), as well as a participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Asia-Pacific Economic Community (APEC), and in 1995 signed a protocol on cooperation with the European Union. Vietnam is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.

ECONOMY

After the withdrawal of military units from Cambodia in 1989, Vietnam had the opportunity to completely end the regime of “war communism”. Back in 1986, the VI Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam changed the country's top leadership and began a process officially called "renewal", thanks to which the country entered a period of modernization. The far-reaching reforms outlined as a result of the congress were aimed at eliminating direct government intervention in pricing, production and foreign trade.

To speed up the flow of funds and revive activity in the private sector, Vietnam has developed legislation regarding preferential taxation of foreign investors, created “export production zones” and stimulated the activity of foreign banks. The formation of a legal framework for a market economy began in the country. After 1990, a number of important laws in the field of civil law were adopted, standards for business activities, the work of firms, etc. were developed. The reorganization and gradual privatization of a number of public sector enterprises is underway. The number of state-owned enterprises decreased from 12,084 in 1991 to approximately 6,300 in 1995, mainly due to the liquidation of weak enterprises and the consolidation of a number of related enterprises. The program of privatization of public sector enterprises is being systematically implemented.

The move towards the market has brought impressive results. From 1990 to 1997, gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 8.9%, and actual capital investment increased at about 25% per year. In 1995–1997, Vietnam was the leader among ASEAN member countries in terms of economic growth. By 2000, GDP per capita was $400. Foreign direct investment sanctioned by the authorities, which in 1991 amounted to approximately $2.3 billion, reached $31.2 billion in 1997, accounting for 30% of all capital investments. In 1991–1998, there was a rapid growth in exports - from 2042 million to 9356 million dollars, or 27% per year, and imports - from 2105 million to 11,390 million dollars, or 32% per year. In 1998, the export of goods and services was estimated at 42% of GDP, import - at 47% of GDP. Despite the results achieved, Vietnam is experiencing economic difficulties. The underdevelopment of infrastructure and the weakness of economic potential are manifested in the low level of production of main types of products: electricity - 226 kWh, coal - 117 kg, oil - 118 kg, rolled steel - 8.6 kg, cement - 83.3 kg, sugar - 7, 8 kg, rice - 352 kg, mineral fertilizers - 12.8 kg and export volume of 96 US dollars per capita (as of 1997). In the same year, national income per capita was approx. $300 The Asian financial crisis of 1998–1999 resulted in the country's imports decreasing in value by 3%, while exports expanded by 0.9%, and foreign investment fell.

Vietnam's economic growth did not stop in 2002; Thus, in 2002, GDP was estimated at $183.8 billion, or $2,300 per capita. By sector, GDP was divided as follows: the agricultural sector occupied 24%, industry - 37% and other services - 39%. The population on the verge of poverty in the country is about 37%.

Foreign investment

are regulated by a special law of November 12–20, 1996, which establishes four forms of direct investment: equity participation, joint ventures, enterprises with 100% foreign capital and BOT (build-operate-transfer) and JV (build-transfer) agreements. In 1998, 2,200 investment projects were carried out in Vietnam, attracting capital from 60 countries with a registered investment of $32 billion; the volume of realized investments amounted to 12 billion dollars. Foreign direct investments showed dynamic growth in 1991–1997, although in 1997 they were authorized approximately 1/3 less than in 1996, and half less than in 1995. At the end of 1997, foreign direct investments capital investments were distributed as follows: oil and gas industry - 26%; light industry, primarily food industry - 17.6%; heavy industry – 13.4%; hotel business and tourism – 16%; communications – 6.8%; agriculture, forestry and fishing – 3.8%; banking sector – 2.2%; and zones for processing imported raw materials - 1.2%.

Foreign and government investments, directed primarily to industry and the service sector, tend predominantly to major cities– Hanoi, Haiphong and Ho Chi Minh City. This exacerbates the income imbalance between the leading urban centers and the rest of the country. In 1995, the average per capita income in Hanoi was $695 and in Ho Chi Minh City $912, and in the country as a whole it was approx. $220 From 1996 to 1998, GDP in these cities increased twice as fast as in the entire country, and three times faster than in rural areas.

Of the $31.2 billion in foreign direct investment recorded at the end of 1997, the majority came from East and Southeast Asia (in billion dollars): Singapore - 6.3, Taiwan - 4.3, Japan - 3 ,6, South Korea– 3.1, Hong Kong – 2.7, Malaysia – 1.4, Thailand – 1.1, Philippines – 0.31, Indonesia – 0.244. Among the European powers in this regard, France was the leader, among the American powers - the United States, with figures of 1.5 billion and 1.4 billion dollars, respectively. Receipts from China amounted to 112 million dollars, from Russia - 99 million dollars. In 1998 Under the influence of the financial crisis, there was a mass exodus of European and American businessmen from Vietnam. In Ho Chi Minh City alone, approximately 180 representative offices of foreign companies have closed.

Agriculture

remains the main sector of the Vietnamese economy, ensuring the country's food security. 78% of the population lives in the village (1997). Already in the 1980s, the indicator of agricultural overpopulation was clearly evident: the area of ​​agricultural land per inhabitant was 0.1 hectares: historically, there was an irrational distribution of the population, in which 80% of it lived on 20% of the country's territory. In Vietnam there are still over 13 million hectares of virgin and fallow lands, as well as lands located on the slopes of hills and at the foot of mountains, which, in principle, can be put into economic use.

Agriculture is characterized by the presence of three sectors: state (state farms specializing mainly in the production of industrial crops, raw materials for industry and for export), private sector and the collective sector - cooperatives, production teams.

The share of the private sector in agriculture is estimated at approximately 90%. Functions of the so-called renewed cooperatives are reduced to the provision of various types of services and assistance in production, as well as to the organization of various forms of social life in the countryside. In 1994, across the country, each peasant household (on average 4.77 eaters, 2.29 workers) accounted for only 4,143 square meters. m of agricultural land. Labor resources in the village are used only by 30–50%, i.e. The surplus amateur population in need of employment is 6–7 million people. The already significant gap in income between urban and rural residents is widening.

In most cases, primitive tools are used in agriculture. Only 10% of land area is cultivated by machines. The volume of annual savings in peasant farms is very low (in 1993 it did not on average exceed 700 thousand dong per farm, i.e. approximately 70 dollars). At the end of 1998, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) noted in its report that over the past 10 years, food production in the country has increased by an average of 5.7% per year and the gross grain harvest has increased per capita from 281 kg to 398 kg. The share of family-peasant households suffering from malnutrition decreased from 30 to 17%, which in absolute terms amounts to 2.4 million households, of which 300 thousand are classified in the group with chronic starvation and 400 thousand in the group with periodic starvation. The agricultural sector produces 25% of GDP and 36.3% of all export products. Agriculture, forestry and fisheries employ 68.8% of the country's labor force, and these sectors are represented at approximately the same level in the “village” economy. In 1995, 27.5 million tons of food were produced in terms of rice, in 1996 - 29 million tons, in 1997 - 31.5 million tons.

The main cultivated land areas are occupied by rice (on the plains - irrigated rice, on mountain slopes and hills - dry rice). Usually there are two rice crops per year. The yield in the Hong Ha River delta is 10–15 tons.

In Vietnam, approx. 1500 varieties of rice - with white, yellowish, reddish-brown (dry rice) and even with almost black (it is considered medicinal) grain. There is also the so-called aromatic and sticky rice, which is used to prepare holiday dishes. On lands unsuitable for rice growing, in addition to rice, minor crops are grown: groundnuts (peanuts), corn, soybeans, legumes, sweet potatoes, and cassava. Agricultural crops are divided into textile and fibrous (cotton, jute, ramie, syt, mulberry), sugar (sugar cane), oilseeds (peanuts, sesame, coconut), stimulants (tobacco, ginger, black pepper, tea, coffee, betel), secreting sap and resin (hevea, lacquer wood, pine). The largest areas are allocated for plantations of the rubber-bearing hevea tree (approx. 200 thousand hectares).

Fruit crops include many varieties of bananas, oranges, lemons, mangoes, grapefruits, papaya (melon tree), pineapples, coconuts, breadfruit, lychee and many other exotic fruits. Among the vegetables that are cultivated mainly in winter, in addition to potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, and onions imported from the temperate zone, numerous varieties of pumpkins, cabbage, herbs, etc. are cultivated.

Livestock farming remains a minor branch of agriculture, but its role is gradually increasing. Cattle (buffaloes and cows) are mainly used for draft purposes; Dairy farming has only recently emerged. Pigs and poultry (chickens and ducks) are raised for meat.

Marine fish and crustacean fishing and collection sea ​​waters Weed farming is carried out mainly in coastal waters.

Wood is harvested, including valuable species for export, as well as cardamom, star anise, cinnamon, gum, rosin, and raw materials for producing tannins and dyes.

According to the report of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPV, presented at the end of 1998, in the country on the principles of ODA (“official development assistance” - the provision by foreign states or international financial organizations of subsidies or preferential loans for needs economic development) 130 agricultural projects were financed. Their total cost was estimated at approximately 1.5 billion dollars. The World Bank financed six of them in the amount of 465 million dollars, the Asian Development Bank - eight projects in the amount of 464 million dollars, the rest was provided by government agencies of different countries. At the end of 1997, foreign direct investment in agriculture, forestry and fisheries reached $3.8 billion, of which $2.06 billion were invested in 127 projects aimed at organizing the processing of agricultural products, and $146 million in 43 projects aimed at promoting aquaculture.

Industry.

Before World War II, when Vietnam's economy had a distinctly colonial character, specific gravity industry accounted for 10% (1939), by the end of the War of Resistance (1946–1954) it dropped to 1.5%. In the 1950s–1980s, the foundations were laid for a number of heavy industry sectors, including electric power, mechanical engineering (with dozens of large and medium-sized enterprises, hundreds of mechanical and repair shops), metallurgy, chemistry, and the building materials industry. Various branches of light industry have developed. The main industrial centers have emerged: Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City - Bien Hoa, Haiphong, Da Nang, Quang Ninh, Vung Tau, Nam Dinh, Vinh, Viet Tri, Thai Nguyen, Ha Bac, Thanh Hoa. The leading role in industry is played by Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, where a significant part of industrial products is produced.

Industry practically doubled its output in 1991–1996. The average annual increase in production was 13.3%. This rapid growth was due to the successful transition from the system of public administration and subsidizing enterprises to the principles of a market economy and the establishment of broad foreign economic relations. An important role was played by the policy of restructuring and modernizing industry, attracting direct investment from abroad, and introducing new industrial technologies. From 1991 to 1995, the total volume of investment in industry from various sources and economic sectors amounted to approximately $4.7 billion, with funds received from the state accounting for 54% of the total investment, foreign investment - 31%, funds invested by ourselves enterprises – 3.5%.

With the direct participation of foreign companies, the most important industries were developed: oil and gas, cement, steel, electronics, clothing and textiles, and agricultural processing. Foreign direct investment contributes to the formation and development of industries such as the automotive industry and motorcycle production.

“Export production zones”, “concentrated industrial production zones” are being created, with tax and other benefits, as well as other favorable conditions for attracting foreign investment (in Haiphong, Da Nang, Can Tho, Tan Thuan, etc.).

If we compare the volume of gross output in 1991–1995 with the corresponding volume for the previous five years, then in terms of electricity production it increased from 35.6 to 57.1 billion kWh, crude oil - from 1.2 to 30.5 million tons, steel - from 393 to 1241 thousand tons, fertilizers - from 2228 to 3340 thousand tons, cement - from 9.8 to 22.5 million tons, paper - from 410 to 713 thousand tons.

Vietnam has significant opportunities for the development of the electricity sector, with large reserves of oil, gas, coal and hydropower resources. The power of generated electricity increased from 2161.7 MW in 1991 to 4360 MW in 1995. The largest hydroelectric power station in Hoa Binh with a capacity of 2 million kW is in operation, as well as hydroelectric power stations in Thac Ba, Danim, Vin Son and others, gas turbine complexes in Ba Ria and Thuduc, thermal power plant (Uong Bi, Falai), as well as hundreds of small hydroelectric power stations. A 500-volt North-South power transmission line was built, and 110–220 V and 350 V power lines were extended by approximately 2,000 km. 442 counties (90% of the total) and 5,450 communities (over 60%) were electrified.

In recent decades, oil exploration and, since the 1980s, oil production have been carried out in Vietnam. Since 1986, the Soviet-Vietnamese joint venture Sovvietpetro has been developing an offshore oil field southeast of the port of Vung Tau (8 million tons of oil were produced in 1996). The Vietnamese state company Petrovietnam operates. Vietnam has signed several dozen agreements with foreign partners on oil exploration and sharing of shares, including Shell, Mobil, British Petroleum, Pedco (Republic of Korea), Petronas Carrigali (Malaysia), Japanese JVPC (JVPC). Two new large oil fields on the continental shelf (Rong and Daihung) were put into operation.

The country's largest coal basin is Quang Ninh, where mining is carried out both in mines and in open pits (for example, in Khao Son). In 1991–1995, coal production remained at the same level as in 1986–1990, 28.5 million tons.

The main center of iron and steel industry is Thai Nguyen. Iron ore is mined there, and in the late 1950s, with the help of China, a metallurgical plant was built, which was then destroyed by American aircraft, but rebuilt in 1973. The steel industry increased steel production from 149 thousand tons in 1991 to 550 thousand tons in 1995 : annual growth rate was 39%. During the same period, thanks to intensive investments, rolled steel production increased in Bien Hoa (Nam Bo) and Thai Nguyen, as well as in machine-building plants (in Hanoi, Nam Dinh, Cam Ph). In the coming years, it is planned to increase the output of rolled products to 1.25 million tons. Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by the smelting of tin (Tin Thuk plant), antimony (in Thaing Guen), chromite (in Thanh Hoa), copper, and tungsten.

The foundations of mechanical engineering were laid in the 1950s; in 1958 the Hanoi Machine Tool Plant was launched. By the mid-1980s there were already approx. 700 different machine-building enterprises, which employed 130 thousand people. Currently, the production of tools, diesel engines, mechanical pumps, small tractors, tractor-drawn agricultural implements, agricultural implements, and equipment for processing agricultural products has been established. We produce motor boats, tugs, barges, small cargo ships, trailers and spare parts for locomotives, freight and passenger cars. There are ship repair enterprises. The largest enterprises in the engineering industry are the Hanoi Mechanical Plant, the Tran Hung Dao Mechanical Plant (in Hanoi), the shipyards in Haiphong, the car repair plant in Gya Lam (in the vicinity of Hanoi), the Godam machine-building plant in Thai Nguyen, the plant for the production and repair of mining equipment in Kamfe.

In the industrial district of Ho Chi Minh City - Bien Hoa, where a significant number of enterprises are concentrated, the assembly of diesel generators, low-power tractors, water pumps, mechanical plows, other agricultural machinery, televisions, picture tubes, consumer electronics, sewing machines, bicycles, motorcycles, and scooters has been established.

The chemical industry largely serves the needs of agriculture and is developed mainly in the north of the country in Bakbo. The production of phosphate fertilizers in 1995 was increased to 750 thousand tons, there is a large superphosphate plant in Lam Thao. Relatively large enterprises for the production of nitrogen fertilizers (110 thousand tons per year) are located in Bak Giang. The most important raw material base for the production of mineral fertilizers is the Laokai apatite mine, where a chemical fertilizer plant was built. Chemical enterprises in the south of the country in the Nambo region produce mainly tires for cars, tractors and bicycles, various rubber products, galvanic cells and batteries, plant protection chemicals, plastics, dyes, and varnishes. An oil refining and petrochemical industry is being created.

The large scale of construction in Vietnam stimulates the growth of the building materials industry, primarily cement production, which grew from 3.1 million tons in 1991 to 5.8 million tons in 1995. The largest enterprises in the industry are cement factories in Bim Son, Hai Phong, Bien Hoa, Ha Tien, Hoang That.

Light industry sectors such as textiles, leather and footwear, porcelain and earthenware, glassware, food, etc. have developed. A developed network of rice processing plants is of particular importance for Vietnam. In 1995, light industry accounted for 62.5% of all Vietnamese industrial exports.

The handicraft industry plays an important role in the country's economy. There are entire villages of artisans in Vietnam. Many crafts, such as pottery, silk weaving and carpet weaving, bronze casting, jewelry, wood and bone carving, have centuries-old traditions. In the early 1990s, the cottage industry produced approx. 30 thousand items of consumer goods. A significant share of Vietnamese exports is made up of handicrafts, including artistic crafts.

Transport.

More than 40 thousand km of large and small navigable rivers and canals, over 3 thousand km sea ​​coast– this is the length of Vietnam’s water communications. In recent years, the sea and river fleet has been replenished with tankers and container ships, although it does not include large ships. Coastal and river transportation occupy a special place. The main ports are Ho Chi Minh City, Danang, Hong Gai, Nha Trang, Haiphong, Vung Tau.

Vietnam's land roads have a length of more than 310 thousand km, about a third of them are automobile. The laying of land communications in Vietnam is complicated by the need to build many bridges. The roads are paved with stone, and only 10% of them have an asphalt surface, a third of the roads are dirt. The most important highways: Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi - Haiphong. A park trucks amounts to approx. 20 thousand

The length of the railway network in the mid-1990s was 2,600 km. These are mostly narrow gauge roads. Railways with a wider gauge have a length of approx. 400 km. Main railway line Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh City (1730 km) stretches across the entire country from north to south. The largest railway junction is Hanoi (60% of freight turnover). 75% of the volume of railway transportation falls on northern part countries. Railway transport is the weakest industry in transport system country, is characterized by the unsatisfactory condition of the tracks, an outdated fleet of locomotives and rolling stock, and slow speeds.

Civil aviation is developing rapidly, serving 15 domestic routes with a length of over 62 thousand km. Since 1980, Vietnam has become a member of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Vietnam Airlines also services international routes (flights to Moscow, Paris, Bangkok and other capitals). The country has a network of airfields; airports in cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and Da Nang are intended for international communications.

International trade.

The volume of exports in 1997 reached $9.1 billion, which is 4 times higher than in 1990. Trade relations are maintained primarily with the countries of East Asia and the European Union. In 1986–1990 approx. 40% of Vietnamese exports went to the USSR, and from the USSR came approx. 70% import. In 1997, goods worth $130 million were purchased from Russia, and raw materials and other products worth $330 million were sold.

Sales abroad of footwear, textiles and ready-made clothing expanded most vigorously, the volume of which grew to $1,800 million per year. The share of finished products in Vietnamese exports is less than 35%. The bulk of exports are rice, corn, coffee, tea, rubber, cashew nuts and other agricultural products, the export of which tripled between 1992 and 1996. At the same time, exports of coal, crude oil and various seafood products more than doubled. In 1996, agricultural, forestry and fishery products accounted for 45% of total exports, crude oil and coal 20% and industrial products 35%. Vietnam attracts foreign businessmen because it is a capacious market that does not have high demands on the quality of goods. In imports, the role of capital goods has increased (up to 33% compared to 22% in 1992) due to intermediate products (56% versus 64%) and consumer goods (11% versus 14%). The foreign trade balance deficit remains at a high level (billion dollars): 1995 – 2.7; 1996 – 3.9; 1997 – 2.5 and 1998 – 2.

In 1998, Vietnam exported 12.2 million tons of crude oil and 3.8 million tons of rice. Due to the sharp drop in world prices for these goods, it was not possible to prevent a reduction in foreign exchange earnings from outside. As a result, the country is experiencing balance of payments difficulties, with its external debt approaching $11 billion. The slowdown in 1998 in the growth rate of such major export goods as shoes, coffee, rubber and cashew nuts, and the simultaneous weakening of the influx of foreign investment, meant a loss of order for Vietnam $1 billion

Banking system.

In addition to the central State Bank of Vietnam, at the end of 1998 there were 4 state-owned commercial banks in the country: the Industrial and Commercial Bank of Vietnam (Inkombank), the Foreign Trade Bank (Vietcombank), the Investment and Development Bank of Vietnam and the Vietnam Agricultural and Rural Development Bank. In addition, there are 52 joint-stock banks (the authorized capital of which is formed from funds from the state, private firms and individuals) and over 10 branches of foreign banks.

The most dynamic trend in the national financial system appears to be the growth of the country's external liabilities. It is believed that up to 70% of foreign direct investment comes in the form of debt capital, although exact figures have not been published. Debt to the English Government Department - the Aid Office foreign countries is slowly declining, but in 1993–1998 still exceeded $5 billion, and short-term debt on foreign trade transactions and deferred letters of credit reached $2.5 billion in 1998.

The financial crisis in Southeast Asia revealed many negative aspects of the investment climate and the weaknesses of the monetary, financial and banking system of Vietnam. This is manifested primarily in the fact that the mechanism for regulating the exchange rate and the interest rate have not yet been regulated by the market; the policy of distribution of public investments is aimed at supporting weak investment projects; the credit policy of banks is administrative in nature and does not contribute to the rational distribution of funds; The system of banks remains weak, many of which do not have significant capital and use backward banking technologies; the practice of “knocking out” public funds, etc. continues.

CULTURE

Education and science.

The country has introduced compulsory five-year primary education. In the 1994/95 academic year, the number of students in schools at all levels reached 14.6 million. However, in the mid-1990s, the share of illiterate people in rural areas was still 20%. According to a 1996 survey, the most unfavorable situation is observed in the Mekong Delta provinces, where approx. 2.8 million people over 10 years of age.

In the 1994/95 academic year, the number of students reached 211 thousand. There are 102 higher and secondary specialized educational institutions in the country.

In Vietnam there are approx. 300 research institutions. Fundamental research is carried out at the National Center for Scientific Research and the National Center for Social Sciences and Humanities, which have a network of institutes, departments, and laboratories in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Nha Trang, Da Lat, and Haiphong. Hanoi houses the National Library, the library of the Institute of Scientific Information for Social Sciences, and the library of the Institute of Hieroglyphic Writing.

Architecture and fine arts.

Surviving early monuments visual arts date back to the 1st millennium BC. – for example, large bronze drums dotted with drawings are an ancient model of the Universe. The flourishing of architecture and sculpture in Vietnam is associated with the formation in the 2nd century. Champa State. Cham art developed under the influence of India, as well as Cambodia: Hindu and Shaivist temples of the 7th–10th centuries. in Chakieu, Michon, Dong Duong, Ponagar Temple (in Nha Trang), in the composition of which round sculpture plays a complementary role in relation to architecture. There are numerous tower-shaped Cham temples (kalans).

The development of Vietnamese religious architecture is associated with Buddhism and Confucianism. The Chinese influence is felt in the temples: multi-tiered towers of the Huong Thich Temple (Fragrant Footprints of Buddha, 11th century), the temple in Binh Son (11th–14th centuries), the architectural and park ensemble of the Confucian “Temple of Literature” (founded in Hanoi in 1070), a Buddhist temple Thua Mot Kot (“Temple on One Column”, 1049, restored in 1955) in Hanoi, Buddhist temple complexes of Kaeo (13th–19th centuries), But Thap (16th century), multi-tiered tower of Thien Mu (“Heavenly Lady”, 1600 ) in Hue, the architectural and park ensemble of the imperial Forbidden City (1808–1833) in Hue, palaces and mausoleums of the 19th century. in the vicinity of this city. Unique monuments of wooden architecture are those preserved from the 16th–17th centuries. dini - communal houses dedicated to the cult of local patron spirits and decorated with carvings. A monument of military architecture is the Hanoi Citadel with the Banner Tower (1812).

From the end of the 19th century. architectural forms are influenced by Western architecture: urban ensembles, Catholic cathedrals, city theaters in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, building Historical Museum, Presidential Palace, Labor Palace in Hanoi.

The cult sculpture (stone, as well as wooden, lacquered and gilded) has a centuries-old history. Its pinnacle is considered to be expressive sculptural images of the 18th century. at the Tay Phuong Buddhist Temple (near Hanoi). Vietnamese traditional painting is characterized by posthumous portraits, paintings of temples and palaces, and landscapes. Folk painting, as well as the art of decorative miniature mountains (nonbo), achieved noticeable development.

In 1925, the Higher School of Fine Arts was founded in Hanoi, active development of the experience of European painting and sculpture began, and at the same time, unique techniques of painting on varnish and silk appeared.

Literature.

Ancient folklore is represented by a cycle of mythological legends about the Dragon Sovereign of Lak (Lak Long Quen), about the birth of the first people from eggs, the heroic tale of Phu Dong, legends about the construction of the Snail Fortress (Koloa), about the warriors Trung sisters. A cycle of mytho-epic tales of the Muongs has been preserved The Birth of Water and the Birth of Earth. Early monuments of Vietnamese literature date back to the 10th–12th centuries. In the 13th–14th centuries. Court poetry developed. Patriotic sentiments are expressed in poetry and rhythmic prose about the fight against the Mongol invasion in the 13th century: Appeal to military leaders(1285) Tran Hung Dao (1232–1300). In the 14th century the medieval short story was born, which was formed on the basis of the traditions of narrative folklore and historical chronicles: Collection of wonders and mysteries of the land of Viet(1329) by Lee Te Xuyen. In the 15th century poetry in spoken language is developing, the founder of which was Nguyen Chai (1380–1442) ( Collection of poems in native language). The poet Le Thanh Tong (1442–1497) and the literary association played an important role in this process Collection of twenty-eight stars. In the 16th–17th centuries. Rhythmic prose and philosophical poetry became widespread (Nguyen Binh Khiem, 1491–1586; Phung Khac Khoan, 1528–1613). At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century. a historical epic poem was created Book of the Heavenly South.

Origins in 18th century literature. the genre of lyric poem (ngem) opened up opportunities for a deep disclosure of the spiritual world of man (poetes Doan Thi Diem, 1705–1748; poet Nguyen Gia Thieu, 1741–1798). The narrative poem (chuen), which reflected private life, flourished (Nguyen Huu Hao, d. 1713; Pham Thai, 1777–1813). The synthesis of the traditions of these genres was the poem by Nguyen Du (1766?–1820) The lament of a tormented soul(or Kieu) is an outstanding monument of Vietnamese classical poetry. The two-dimensional poems of the poetess Ho Xuan Huong (late 18th – early 19th century) affirmed the value of human sensual life. In prose, the genres of the epic novel appear ( Emperor Le - the unifier of the country), essays (Le Quy Don, Pham Dinh Ho), descriptions of travel, including to Europe ( Book of records of various cases, 1822, Felipe Bina, 1759–1832?).

From the second half of the 19th century. Vietnamese literature developed in conditions of resistance to French expansion. A movement emerged, the founder of which was the poet Nguyen Dinh Thieu (1822–1888), associated with the national liberation movement. As colonial society matures, the satirical tendency intensifies.

In the first quarter of the 20th century. Under the influence of European literature, modern prose genres are formed: short story, novel, drama. In the 1930s, the New Poetry movement emerged. Romantic (Nhat Linh, 1906–1963; Khai Hung, 1896–1947; Thach Lam, 1910–1942) and realistic (Ngo Tat To, 1894–1954; Nguyen Cong Hoan, 1903–1977; Vu Trong Phung, 1912) appear in literature –1939; Nam Kao, 1915–1951) directions.

In the last decades of the 20th century. The structure of Vietnamese literature is gradually moving closer to the structure of literature in Europe and America. Among modern authors, prose writers Nguyen Hong (1918–1982), To Hoai (b. 1920), Le Luu (b. 1942), Nguyen Manh Tuan (b. 1945), poets Xuan Gieu (1916–1985), Te Lan Vien stand out (b. 1919), Te Hanh (b. 1920), poet and playwright Nguyen Dinh Thi (b. 1924).

Theater.

Ancient theatrical forms in Vietnam are the cane puppet theater and the original water puppet theater, the stage for which is the water surface of a lake, pond or a special pool at a temple. The first mention of a water puppet theater dates back to the beginning of the 12th century.

Traditional Vietnamese theater is musical and is represented by two main genres: tuong and teo. Tuong was considered a "high" theater genre. There were court tuong troupes, as well as troupes at the houses of feudal lords. Tuong as a synthetic art is based on a combination of music, pantomime, dance, poetry, partly acrobatics and fencing. Make-up, gestures, and a few stage accessories have a symbolic meaning. At the center of the play, the tuonga is a heroic character who performs a feat in the name of the homeland and the monarch. Tuong often borrowed plots from novels Three Kingdoms, River backwaters and other works of Chinese classics. A noticeable influence on the development of tuong in the 17th century. rendered by Dao Zui Tu (1572–1634): tradition attributes to him the popular tuong Sean Howe. In the 19th century a body was established that was in charge of tuonga troupes throughout the country. Tuong at this time reached the peak of the work of playwright Dao Tan (1846–1908); some cycles of performances lasted up to a hundred evenings. In the middle of the 19th century. folk comedy tuong appeared ( Shellfish, Watchman Ken and Chief Neng).

Another genre of national performing arts is the Teo folk theater, which is believed to have its origins in peasant harvest festivals in the Hong Ha River delta region. The stage for theo was the courtyard of a community house; the troupes were amateur or semi-professional. Theo Theater absorbed folk melodies and dances. The orchestra accompanying the performances uses folk musical instruments. Theo's performances are based on folklore plots, plots of popular narrative poems: performances Thach Sanh, Quan Am - Thi Kinh maiden.

During the process of renewal of Vietnamese theater in the 1920s, another type of musical theater emerged - cai luong. Popular musical melodies sounded from the stage, interspersed with prose and poetic dialogues. The musical part and orchestra were modernized, the acting became more natural, decorations, a curtain, and a stage appeared. The repertoire was formed not only due to traditional plots, but also performances on modern themes. An example is the work of playwright Tran Huu Chang (1906–1966).

The theater, in which music did not play a leading role, was created under the influence of French theatrical art in the 1920s. On the development of modern drama in the second half of the 20th century. The Russian theater school and the Stanislavsky system had a noticeable impact.

STORY

The following main trends can be traced in the political history of Vietnam: expansion to the south, geographic regionalism (developed on the basis administrative division or thanks to the informal power that provincial governors acquired) and the desire of the central government to control the actions of local leaders. It should be noted that there were few peaceful periods in the history of Vietnam. The oldest Vietnamese state was Van Lang. He was replaced by Aulak, who united with another state - Nam Viet (258-111 BC). Its rulers apparently managed in the 190–180s BC. unite Tonkin (now the northern part of North Vietnam) with southern Chinese lands. In 111 BC The army of the Chinese Han Empire overthrew the last monarch of the Vietnamese Trieu dynasty, probably also Chinese in origin. Tonkin then became the Chinese border province of Jiaozhi. When the new rulers came into conflict with the feudal structures that existed in Vietnam, a rebellion led by the Trung sisters (39–43 AD) occurred, which led to a brief end to Chinese rule. The second stage of Chinese dominance began in 44 and was interrupted only after the rebellion of prominent representatives of the Li dynasty (544–602). After 939, when the founder of the Ngo dynasty seized power, Vietnam managed to gain independence, albeit with some elements of Chinese suzerainty, which continued until the period of French colonial rule.

Having achieved independence, the Vietnamese expanded their lands from Tonkin to northern Annam, pushing out the Khmers and Chams - farmers, sailors and traders. Pretenders to the Vietnamese throne often turned to Chinese emperors for help, whose invasions usually ended in failure. Even the Mongol armies of Kublai Kublai, who undertook campaigns in the delta region of the Hong Ha River, were defeated twice (in 1285 and 1288) by the Vietnamese commander Tran Hung Dao. In 1407, the Chinese invasion temporarily restored the power of the Chan dynasty, which ruled from 1225 to 1400. During the war of liberation, led by Le Loi, the founder of the Le dynasty, Chinese imperial troops were finally expelled from Vietnam (1427).

During the Le dynasty (1428–1789), significant progress was made in governance, improvement of legislation and cultural development. But from the 16th century. Le reigned nominally. Initially, real power was assumed by the powerful Mak family. With the move of Nguyen Hoang to the south in 1558, the power of the Nguyen clan was formed, and at the end of the 16th century. In the north of the country, the power of the Chin clan is established. The Le remained nominally sacred figures until the fall of the dynasty. The Nguyens gradually came to the fore as they managed to expand their zone of influence, spreading it at the end of the 17th century. to the Mekong Valley and then to all of Cochin China (1757).

The unstable balance of power between the Trinh and Nguyen houses was upset after 1773, when the three Tay Son brothers rebelled against both ruling clans, leading to the split of the country. One of the expelled members of the Nguyen clan, with the support of the French in the 1790s, emerged victorious from internecine battles and subsequently proclaimed himself Emperor Gia Long (1802). The Nguyen dynasty gradually weakened due to uprisings in the south and north of Vietnam, which facilitated French expansion in the mid-19th century. France subjugated in 1862 three eastern and in 1867 three western provinces of Cochin, which in 1874 acquired the status of a colony. The northern (Tonkin) and central (Annam) parts of the country were turned into protectorates. All three regions, together with Laos and Cambodia, formed French Indochina, which the new government sought to consolidate administratively through a common budget and a unified public works program. During the colonial period, state monopolies on salt, liquor and opium were introduced and the construction of bridges, railways and horse-drawn roads was encouraged.

In 1930, on the initiative of the Vietnamese National Party (Vietnam Quoc zan Dang), created on the model of the Chinese National Party (Kuomintang), an armed Yen Bai uprising broke out in the area northwest of Hanoi. After its suppression, the resistance movement was led by the Communist Party of Indochina, formed in 1930 by Ho Chi Minh. During the period when the Popular Front was in power in France, the Vietnamese communists, together with the Trotskyists, expanded their influence and even participated in local government elections in Cochin China and Saigon. In 1940–1941, the Communists led an unsuccessful uprising in the far south, while the Tai organized unrest in the north.

From July 1941 to August 1945, Japanese troops occupied all of Vietnam. In 1941, Ho Chi Minh founded the Vietnamese Independence League, known as the Viet Minh.

At the end of World War II, detachments of the Chinese Kuomintang entered the northern part of the country, and the British entered the territory of South Vietnam. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, made Hanoi their base and formed "People's Committees" throughout Vietnam. On September 2, 1945, after the abdication of Emperor Bao Dai (who belonged to the Nguyen dynasty), the Viet Minh, who enjoyed the favor of China as a result of the August Revolution, announced the creation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and formed a provisional government, chaired by Ho Chi Minh.

In accordance with the Vietnamese-French agreements of 1946, France agreed to recognize the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) as a “free state” with an army and parliament, as part of the Indochina Confederation and the French Union. The first president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was Ho Chi Minh, who simultaneously headed the government as prime minister. At the end of 1946, France and the Viet Minh accused each other of violating the agreements, and on December 19, Viet Minh troops attacked French troops. France sought to win over the local population by installing former Emperor Bao Dai in 1949 as head of a nominally independent government. However, the Viet Minh refused to recognize the new regime and after 1949 strengthened their position, enjoying the support of China. In turn, France has received large military and economic assistance from the United States since 1951. In the spring of 1954, French troops were surrounded and defeated at Dien Bien Phu. This circumstance and the demand of the international community to stop the aggression accelerated the conclusion of a peace agreement at an international meeting in Geneva.

The meeting was attended by representatives of the USA, France, Great Britain, the USSR, China, Laos, Cambodia and two Vietnamese governments: Bao Dai (South Vietnam) and Viet Minh (Northern Vietnam). The Cessation of Hostilities Agreement between France and the Viet Minh, signed in July 1954, provided for a temporary division of the country along the 17th parallel; holding elections in July 1956 necessary for the reunification of North and South Vietnam; the withdrawal of French military units from the North and the prohibition of the build-up of weapons in any of the zones; formation of an international commission to monitor the implementation of the agreement. Thus, the existence of two independent states was recognized - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). North Vietnam retained for subsequent years the main state structures that began to form back in 1946, and proclaimed a line for the construction of socialism under the leadership of the Communist Party and President Ho Chi Minh. In South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem replaced Bao Dai in 1955 and took the presidency. Diem managed to cope with the opposition of the military elite, the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao sects and the Dai Viet Party, and he was re-elected president in 1961. The Saigon authorities tried to discredit the Viet Minh in the eyes of its supporters remaining in the South, but faced active military confrontation in many rural areas, especially in Cochin. In 1960, opponents of the regime created the pro-communist National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NSLF). In the cities, non-communist opposition groups opposed Diem. Buddhists denounced the regime for its discriminatory policies, and several Buddhist monks and nuns even burned themselves in protest.

On November 1, 1963, the military overthrew Ngo Dinh Diem, followed by a series of coups. Unrest among Buddhists, Catholics and students continued until civilian rule was restored in late 1964.

In June 1965, the post of head of state was taken by General Nguyen Van Thieu, and the post of prime minister by General Nguyen Cao Ky. In 1966, a specially elected Assembly adopted a Constitution approved by the military, which came into force on April 1, 1967. Presidential elections were held in September. Thieu and Ky became president and vice president, respectively, according to the results of the vote. Up to a third of the total population living in the territory under the control of the NLF did not take part in the election campaign.

Meanwhile, the scale of hostilities expanded. American military advisers had been in the South since 1960, and yet the NLF was close to victory. In 1965, the United States sent army units to help the Saigon government, launched the first air strikes on the territory of North Vietnam and intensified the bombing of the rebellious areas of South Vietnam. The NLF received military reinforcements from the North, aid to which was provided by the USSR and China. American military presence temporarily stabilized the situation, but at the beginning of 1968, units of the NLF and North Vietnam carried out military operations in almost all major South Vietnamese cities. In April, peace negotiations began between representatives of the United States and North Vietnam. Then began the partial evacuation of American military personnel from the South, whose number at one time reached 536 thousand people. In the summer of 1969, a people's revolutionary administration was created in free democratic elections in the liberated areas of South Vietnam. On June 6–8, at the People's Congress, the Republic of South Vietnam (RSV) was proclaimed and the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG) was created. Ho Chi Minh died that same year.

From 1969 to 1971, the South Vietnamese army expanded the area under its control. At this time, the United States withdrew its military units from the country, compensating for these steps with air bombing. In 1971 Thieu was re-elected as president of South Vietnam. In the spring and early summer of 1972, the Communists organized a major offensive, which was very successful until it was stopped by the actions of American aircraft and counterattacks by South Vietnamese troops. The United States responded by increasing air raids and conducting extensive mining of North Vietnamese ports and sea and river routes. At the end of the year, the United States began massive bombing of North Vietnamese cities.

On January 27, 1973, the four parties involved in the war signed a peace agreement in Paris, which provided for a ceasefire in the South, recognition of the 17th parallel as a temporary demarcation line and the withdrawal of American troops from the country. It was supposed to convene National Council and elections that would decide the fate of the South Vietnamese government.

The last American troops left Vietnam in April 1973, but the political clauses of the treaty were never implemented. The Saigon administration tried to conduct the election campaign on its own, which was opposed by the GRP, which demanded the creation of a tripartite council. Moreover, the fighting did not stop. In March 1975, the Saigon army was forced to leave the central plateau area (Taing Guen), after which it disintegrated. A few weeks later, the armed forces of the GRP and North Vietnam surrounded southern capital. Thieu resigned on April 21, and on April 30, 1975, Saigon military units surrendered.

Initially, it seemed that both parts of the country could exist as independent, albeit closely related, state entities. However, the communists were in a hurry with the unification process. In the summer and fall of 1975 they nationalized banks and large enterprises in the South. In April 1976, general elections were held for the National Assembly of a united Vietnam. On July 2, 1976, the official reunification of Vietnam and the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place.

During the war, both the USSR and China helped Vietnam. In the late 1970s, Vietnam established close ties with Soviet Union. The socialist transformation of the economy in the South primarily harmed the large Chinese community in Vietnam. Its conflicts with the Vietnamese took the form of inter-ethnic strife and had a negative impact on relations between Vietnam and China. In addition, China sided with the anti-Vietnamese regime of Pol Pot in Cambodia. In December 1978, Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia and by the beginning of 1979 occupied most its territory. In February 1979, an armed conflict occurred on the Vietnamese-Chinese border.

At least 750 thousand people (more than half of them ethnic Chinese) left the country between 1978 and 1980. Many returned to historical homeland by land, and some traveled across the South China Sea by boat.

The desire of the Vietnamese authorities to carry out socialist transformations already at the end of the 1970s led to negative consequences. The government in Hanoi concentrated all its efforts on military actions and was entirely dependent on help from the USSR. The South Vietnamese economy, based on private enterprise, was artificially fueled by large cash injections.

In the 1980s, the government took a more pragmatic course, giving more discretion to local planners, removing restrictions on the development of commodity relations and allowing peasants to sell some of their produce on the market. However, in the middle of the decade, huge budget deficits and emissions gave rise to rapid inflation. In 1989, the country adopted a long-term program of radical reforms, including measures to suppress inflationary trends, liberalize banking and other legislation and stimulate the private sector in industry. The adopted state policy of “renewal” (“doi myoi”) was confirmed and further developed at the VII (1991) and VIII (1996) congresses of the CPV.

Vietnam at the end of the 20th century - beginning of the 21st century

As part of economic reforms, a law was passed in January 1991 on the admission of private enterprises. The new constitution adopted in 1992 provided for a clearer division of functions between the party and the state, the introduction of a market economy, a stronger role for the private sector and the possibility of private land use. However, the country's leadership stated that the course towards socialism with the leading role of the Communist Party will be maintained and multi-party democracy will not be established. At the Seventh Congress of the Communist Party in June 1991, Do Muoi, who had until then served as head of government (he was replaced by Vo Van Kiet), was elected as the new general secretary. The new appointments reflected the balance of power in the party leadership. Before Muoi, a participant in the communist movement since 1939, was considered a supporter of the orthodox course, Vo Van Kiet was one of the leading adherents of market reforms. In June 1992, the government announced the release of all members, advisers and supporters of the former South Vietnamese regime. In the elections to the National Assembly in July 1992, for the first time, more candidates were nominated than there were seats in parliament. Two independent candidates were also allowed to participate in the elections. In July 1993, the National Assembly adopted a law that allowed peasants to acquire land for use (the state remained the supreme owner of the land).

Vietnam established ties with the International Monetary Fund and began to cooperate with it in pursuing economic policies. In November 1994, the Vietnamese government and the IMF agreed on a medium-term economic program that provided for real growth in 1994–1996 of 8–8.7% and a reduction in inflation from 10.5 to 7%. In November 1995, Vietnam, international organizations and creditor states agreed to provide assistance to this country in 1996 in the amount of $2.3 billion. Negotiations continued to repay debts from loans extended in the 1970s by Japanese banks. In 1996, Vietnam and Western creditors reached an agreement to restructure $900 million in debt. In 1997, Hanoi was again expected to receive $2.4 billion in aid.

Economic liberalization in the country was not accompanied by the Communist Party giving up its monopoly position in the state. In November 1995, the Supreme Court sentenced two former senior party figures to prison terms of 15 and 18 months for "abusing the rights of freedom and democracy to the detriment of national security." Both advocated reform and democratization of the ruling party. The Eighth Congress of the Communist Party in June–July 1996 spoke in favor of continuing cautious reforms while maintaining state control over the economy and political system.

In 1997, the country experienced a change of leadership. Due to the National Assembly elections in July, all three leading leaders were replaced: Communist Party General Secretary Do Muoi, President Le Duc Anh and Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet. Communist Party candidates received 85% of the vote and took 384 of 450 seats, 63 seats went to non-party members, 3 seats went to independents. In September 1997, Tran Duc Luong became the new president, Pham Van Hai became the head of government, the Communist Party was headed in December 1997 by Le Kha Phieu, and in 2001 by Nong Duc Manh.

In the late 1990s, the Vietnamese leadership launched a campaign to combat corruption. As part of it, some of the country's top officials and politicians were removed from their posts, including the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Deputy Head of Government, etc. The bureaucracy was also blamed for the ongoing economic stagnation. Since 1998, 3 thousand members have been expelled from the CPV due to corruption, and penalties have been imposed on 16 thousand.

Overall, during the decade of reform, Vietnam managed to maintain economic growth at 7.6% per year and double its gross product; from 1985–1986, industrial production increased fivefold, and food production doubled. But market reforms have led to growing social differences and the gap between city and countryside, to the discontent of the poorest sections of the population and national minorities. In February 2001, the party leadership was concerned about major unrest among minorities protesting against the deployment of large industrial rubber and coffee plantations on their lands (a program developed with the participation of the International Monetary Fund).

These problems were discussed at the next IX Congress of the CPV in April 2001. At it it was stated that the country is at the stage of a long and complex “transition to socialism”, in which a variety of economic forms and forms of ownership are preserved. The CPV characterizes the economic system during this period as a “socialist-oriented market economy,” emphasizing, at the same time, the priority role of the public sector. In an attempt to alleviate social tensions, the congress approved changes to the party charter, prohibiting CPV members from owning their own private businesses. Corruption in the party and state, “individualism, opportunism, thirst for power, glory and profit, localism” were subjected to sharp and emotional attacks. From now on, party leaders at the district level will have to hold office for no more than two consecutive terms, the party intends to strictly adhere to the principle of leaving office after a certain age, democratic procedures are expanded.

Sixty-year-old Nong Duc Manh, former chairman of the National Assembly, became the new general secretary of the CPV. This is the first party leader belonging to a national minority (Thai). His choice is considered a compromise between the “reformist” and more “conservative” wings of the party.

In the elections to the National Assembly in May 2002, out of 498 seats, the majority was won by Communist Party candidates, 51 by non-party candidates, and 3 by independents. In 2002 and 2003, despite the ban on strikes, labor conflicts broke out in various sectors of the Vietnamese economy.

In the 1990s, Vietnam's relations with the United States and China improved. In October 1990, Vietnam's foreign minister visited Washington for the first time and negotiated the fate of 1,700 missing American soldiers. In March 1992, the United States and Vietnam reached an agreement that the American side would annually provide Vietnam humanitarian aid$3 million in exchange for help finding missing Americans. In December, the US relaxed the trade embargo against Hanoi, imposed in 1964. Finally, in August 1994, the two countries established diplomatic relations. In April 1997, Vietnam pledged to pay the US debts of the former South Vietnamese government in the amount of $145 million. In June 1997, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright visited Hanoi, and in March 2000, the US Secretary of Defense, who made an official apology for the US role during the Vietnam War, which claimed the lives of almost 3 million Vietnamese and 58 thousand American soldiers. In 2000, US President Clinton visited Vietnam, which gave new impetus to relations between the two states.

In the fall of 1990, for the first time since the freeze of diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China in 1979, both countries signed an agreement on travel of citizens in Beijing. In November 1991, China and Vietnam agreed to formally normalize relations, and in February 1992, the Chinese Foreign Minister traveled to Hanoi. In November - December of the same year, a visit by Chinese Prime Minister Li Peng followed. He discussed controversial territorial issues and the situation in Cambodia with Vietnamese leaders, and also signed an agreement on cooperation in the fields of economics, science, technology and culture. Chinese President Jiang Zemin agreed in November 1994 to expand economic ties between the two countries. In turn, the leader of the Vietnamese Communist Party Do Muoi visited Beijing at the end of 1995 and continued negotiations on border disputes.

Vietnam's relations with Asian countries developed, as well as Western countries. In 1995, Vietnam was admitted to ASEAN. In February 1993, French President François Mitterrand became the first head Western state, who visited Hanoi since 1954. He signed seven cooperation agreements and promised to double financial assistance to 360 million francs. In July 1995, Vietnam and the European Union entered into a trade and cooperation agreement.

In June 2006, Nguyen Minh Triet, chairman of the Communist Party branch in Ho Chi Minh City, became the country's president. 94% of deputies of the National Assembly voted for his candidacy.

Literature:

Mazaev A.G. Agrarian reform in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. M., 1959
Fridland V.M. Nature of Northern Vietnam. M., 1961
Rastorguev V.S. Finance and credit of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. M., 1965
History of Vietnam in modern times(1917–1965 ). M., 1970
Anosova L.A. Industry of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. M., 1973
Nikulin N.I. Vietnamese literature. From the Middle Ages to the New Age. X–XIX centuries M., 1977
A new history of Vietnam. M., 1980
Nguyen Phi Hoan. Art of Vietnam. Essays on the history of fine arts. M., 1982
History of Vietnam. M., 1983
Recent history of Vietnam. M., 1984
Isaev M.P., Chernyshev A.S. History of Soviet-Vietnamese relations 1917–1985. M., 1986
Deopik D.V. History of Vietnam, part 1. M., 1986
Voronin A.S., Ognetov I.A. Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Directory. M., 1987
Isaev M.P., Pivovarov Ya.N. Essay on agrarian relations in Vietnam. M., 1987
Anosova L.A. Vietnam on the threshold of the 21st century., part 1–2. M., 1993
Hu Kuok Vi, Trigubenko M.E., Anosova L.A. Vietnam. Directory. M., 1993
Pozner P.V. History of Vietnam in the ancient and early Middle Ages until the 10th century. AD. M., 1994
Novakova O.V., Tsvetov P.Yu. History of Vietnam, part 2. M., 1995
Economic reform and renewal in Vietnam. M., 1996



The subsoil of the territory has been poorly explored, but explored reserves indicate rich deposits of mineral resources. There was a lot of coal in the region, only in the north of Vietnam there are insignificant reserves. Oil and gas are produced offshore in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. The world's largest metallogenic "Tin Belt" stretches through the region. Asia

Mesozoic deposits provided the richest reserves of non-ferrous metals: tin (in Indonesia - 1.5 million tons, Malaysia and Thailand - 1.2 million tons each), tungsten (reserves in Thailand - 25 thousand tons, Malaysia - 20 thousand tons). The region is rich in copper, zinc, lead, molybdenum, nickel, antimony, gold, cobalt, the Philippines is rich in copper and gold. Non-metallic minerals are represented by potassium salt (Thailand, Laos), apatites (Vietnam), precious stones(sapphire, topaz, ruby) in Thailand.

Agroclimatic and soil resources.

The warm and humid climate is the main prerequisite for the relatively high efficiency of farming; 2-3 crops are harvested here throughout the year. On fairly fertile red and yellow feralite soils, many hot zone crops are grown (rice, coconut palm, rubber tree - hevea, bananas, pineapples, tea, spices). On the islands, not only coastal areas are used, but also mountain slopes smoothed by volcanic activity (terraced agriculture).

Water resources are actively used for irrigation in all countries. The lack of moisture in the dry season requires considerable expenses for the construction of irrigation structures. The mountain waterways of the Indochina Peninsula (Irrawaddy, Menam, Mekong) and numerous mountain rivers of the islands are capable of meeting the needs for electricity. Forest resources are exceptionally rich. The region is located in the Southern forest belt, forests cover 42% of its territory. Brunei (87%), Cambodia (69%), Indonesia (60%), Laos (57%) have numerous forests, and in Singapore the total forest area is only 7% (the lowest in the region). The forests of the region are especially rich in wood, which has very valuable properties (strength, fire resistance, water repellency, attractive color): thok, sandalwood, legume trees, local species of pine, sundri (mangrove) tree, palms.

Fish resources of the coastal zone of seas and inland waters are of considerable importance in every country: fish and other marine products are widely used in the diet of the population. On some islands of the Malay archipelago, pearls and mother-of-pearl shells are mined.

The rich natural resource potential and favorable climatic conditions of the region make it possible to engage in farming throughout the year, and the diverse reserves of mineral resources contribute to the development of the mining industry and oil refining. Thanks to the existence of valuable tree species, the traditional area is forested. However, due to intensive deforestation, their area decreases every year, which worsens the eco-balance. This predetermines the need for environmental protection measures that are carried out in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and other countries to preserve the unique flora and fauna of the region.

Age of medieval settlement
According to archaeologists, the first settlements of early farmers and cattle breeders on the territory of modern Alma-Ata appeared in the 10th-9th centuries BC. e. Silver dirham minted in the city of Almaty 684 Hijri (1285-86 AD). In the VI-III centuries BC. e. Sakas and later Usuns lived in these places...

Balkhash
Balkhash is a city of regional subordination in the Karaganda region of Kazakhstan. Geography The city is located in the south of the Saryarka plain, 380 km from Karaganda, on the shore of Lake Balkhash near Bertys Bay. Available railroad station, pier and airport. Population The population of the city with its subordinates...

Hydrography
The area is dominated by: river floodplains, four terraces and a watershed plain. The first terrace is developed in the valleys of large rivers - Malaya Sosva, Vorya, Lousiya, Konda, Mulymya, Supra, Bolshoy Tapa; the surface of the terrace is flat, usually swampy; average relative heights of the terrace are from 2 to 6 m. The second terrace...

Gulyaeva N.V., Gulyaeva I.V.
Proceedings of the international Internet conference
“Geographical science and education: modern problems
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Natural and recreational resources of Vietnam

The article examines the natural recreational resources of Vietnam. In a seasonally humid climate, the duration of a comfortable stay in the main resort areas has been established. Among natural recreational resources, used in tourism business, the unique landscapes of Vietnam's rainforest play an important role.

(country of the Vietnamese in the south) is a state in Southeast Asia located on east coast Indochinese Peninsula. Vietnam borders China in the north, Cambodia and Laos in the west, and is washed by the South China Sea in the east and south. The country's territory with an area of ​​331,210 km 2 (66th place in the world) stretches from north to south for 1,750 km and is shaped like a giant letter S. Population 90.5 million people (2011) - Vietnam ranks 14th in the world.

The Vietnamese compare their country to two baskets of rice hanging on a yoke. “Baskets” are two parts of the country, expanded to 600 km, northern (Bac Bo) and southern (Nambo), “yoke” is a narrow strip of Central Vietnam (Chung Bo), narrowing to 50 km.

Vietnam is located in the subequatorial zone and is characterized by unique natural and recreational resources - cleanest beaches, fast rivers, the most beautiful waterfalls, picturesque tropical forests and the rich underwater world of the South China Sea. Possessing a variety of natural recreational resources, this country has relatively recently become a place of pilgrimage for tourists.

One of the important types of recreational resources in Vietnam is its climatic resources. Climatic recreational resources are understood as a set of weather conditions suitable for various types of recreation. When characterizing climatic resources, it is necessary to include data not only on air temperature, amount of precipitation, wind speed, but also the length of time with comfortable climatic conditions. When assessing the influence of weather and climate on the human body, first of all, we distinguish: comfortable, subcomfortable (relatively favorable) and uncomfortable (unfavorable) weather.

A comfortable state of the human body, or physiological optimum, occurs when the skin temperature is within 31-33°. With hotter or colder weather, skin temperature rises or falls, and the amount of thermoregulatory stress increases. However, it is not only the air temperature that influences the degree of comfort. It is also necessary to identify atmospheric phenomena and meteorological elements that have a negative impact on the human body. Uncomfortable weather conditions include any weather with a wind speed of more than 6 m/sec, prolonged fog, precipitation of about 3 mm, intense thunderstorm activity, if these phenomena are observed during the daylight hours. They are physiologically harmful to the human body or prevent most recreational activities.

Vietnam is characterized by a subequatorial climate, characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons, due to the peculiarities of the trade wind-monsoon circulation. In summer, the territory of Vietnam is under the influence of the southwestern equatorial monsoon, which brings in equatorial air, causing the rainy season; in winter, it is influenced by the dry northeastern trade wind. Despite the fact that the country's territory is located at low latitudes, south of the northern tropic from 23° to 8° N latitude. The air temperature in the country is lower than in neighboring countries at the same latitudes. This deviation is due to the peculiarities of the interaction of atmospheric circulation with the underlying surface.

Vietnam is Mountain country, low-lying plains occupy about a quarter of the country's territory, they stretch along the eastern coast and along river valleys.

The north, northwest and west of Vietnam are dominated by mountainous terrain. Mountain ranges stretch submeridionally. The longest mountain range, Chuong Son (“Long Mountains”), stretches from northwest to southeast for 1200 km and has an average height of 800-1000 m, the highest point is Sai Laileng (2711 m), located on the border with Laos. In the south, the mountain ranges of Truong Son alternate with the vast basalt plateaus located along the border with Laos and Cambodia - Kontum, Pleiku, Dar Lac, Lang Bianc and Zilin, collectively called Taing Guen, which means "Western Plateau". The average height of the plateau is about 1000 m, from north to south the height of the plateau decreases from 2500 m to 500-600 m. The remaining mountain ranges are shorter than Chuog Son and are located in the north of Vietnam. This is Hoanglien Son with the highest point of Vietnam - Mount Fansipan (3143 m) and its southern extension - the city of Pulyong, stretching along the right bank of the river. Hongha.

The mountains in the northeast of Vietnam are low and are not an obstacle to the penetration of cold air masses flowing from the Asian anticyclone, which dominates Asia in winter, so during the winter cold continental air penetrates into northern Vietnam, which causes the air temperature to drop to 5-10° WITH. Thus, an anomalously low temperature was noted in January 2011, – 3.6°C, while the typical temperature for this time of year was +15°C. In general, the air temperature in January increases from north to south and is 16°C (21°N) in Hanoi and 26°C (11°N) in Ho Chi Minh City. Starting from March, temperature differences between north and south decrease (Table 1).

Table 1.

Climatic indicators of resort areas in Vietnam

Resort area city

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

november

December

Comfortable rest period

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

1/2

3/4

Northern Hanoi-Halong

16/ 17

-/ -

18/ 17

-/ -

22/ 21

-/ -

28/ 27

-/ -

29/ 27

+/ -

29/ 28

+/ -

29/ 28

+/ -

29/ 30

+/ -

28/ 28

+/ -

25/ 27

+/ -

22/ 24

-/ +

19/ 22

-/ -

March, April; november

Central Danang

22/ 22

+/ -

22/ 23

-/ +

25/ 25

-/ +

26/ 25

-/ +

28/ 28

-/ +

29/ 28

-/ +

29/ 28

-/ +

29/ 28

+/ -

28/ 27

+/ -

26/ 27

+/ -

24/ 24

+/ -

22/ 24

+/ -

February-July

South Ho Chi Minh City

26/ 25

-/ +

27/ 25

-/ +

28/ 26

-/ +

30/ 28

-/ +

30/ 28

+/ -

29/ 29

+/ -

29/ 29

+/ -

29/ 29

+/ -

29/ 30

+/ -

28/ 28

+/ -

25/ 28

+/ -

24/ 27

-/ +

December-April

Note: 1/2 - average monthly temperature air, °C / water temperature; 3/4 - precipitation / clear (+)

April is the hottest month. In the mountains, the air temperature drops to 15°C in January and to 24°C in July. In Vietnam, as in other countries with a subequatorial climate, there is no division of the seasons according to temperature conditions. There are two seasons here – rainy and dry. The seasons are determined by the alternation of the southwest monsoon and the northeast trade wind. During the summer rainy season, up to 90% of the annual precipitation falls. The annual precipitation on the windward slopes of the mountains is 2500-3000 mm of precipitation, on the leeward slopes - 700-900 mm. During the wet season, there are torrential rains every day, after which sunny weather returns. An analysis of the precipitation regime along the eastern coast of Vietnam, where the main resort areas are located, demonstrates great diversity in their distribution. There are three climatic regions: Northern, Central and Southern Vietnam (Table 1).

On South ( tourist centre countries) the rainy season begins in the second ten days of April and lasts until December, so the most favorable period for a holiday here is from December to April. December is the first dry month of the year, the amount of precipitation is 50 mm, 10-12 times less than the monthly amount of precipitation during the rainy season, however, due to storms, the weather in December is subcomfortable for recreation. More comfortable conditions in this region are observed in January - April, when the amount of precipitation decreases compared to December, and the air temperature increases to 28-32° C. The water warms up to 27-28°.

The shortest period of comfortable holidays in the north of the country: in spring - mid-March - May and in autumn - mid-September - October. Although there is a dry season in December-February, there is drizzle and the air temperature is relatively low 16-19°C; on some days the temperature drops to 10°C due to the penetration of cold air from the north. At the end of February, on some days the air can warm up to 27°C. This weather can be classified as subcomfortable.

In Central Vietnam, the rainy season is shifted to autumn - early winter, which is due to orographic precipitation of the winter monsoon, which is saturated with moisture over Bac Bo Bay. From mid-September to the second ten days of December, typhoons are often observed here and the weather during this period can be described as uncomfortable. Monthly precipitation in November is more than 600 mm, even more in the mountains.

The South China Sea is one of the areas where tropical cyclones - typhoons - occur in Pacific Ocean. Favorable conditions for their occurrence are the temperature of the surface waters of the ocean above 27°C, the presence of clouds and a fairly thick layer of moist, unstable air. In the development of tropical cyclones, a decisive role is played by dynamic processes caused by the rise of warm and moist air over heated areas of the ocean. About 80 tropical cyclones form around the globe each year, about 30% of which occur in the Pacific Ocean. The areas of Central Vietnam are most often affected by typhoons.

In general, the subequatorial climate of the eastern coast of Vietnam can be attributed to activating factors for the development of health recreation, and the rainy season is a limiting factor, the duration of which varies by region. The most comfortable conditions are observed in the southern region in December - March, in the central region - in March - July.

In addition to climatic recreational resources, Vietnam's landscapes play an important role in the tourism business.

In the seasonally humid and hot subequatorial climate, humid evergreen tropical forests grow, well preserved in the most inaccessible mountainous regions and in national parks. The total area of ​​Vietnam's protected areas is 750 thousand hectares - these are national parks, nature reserves and nature reserves. The country has 12 national parks and almost 60 nature reserves.

Particularly popular are the national parks in the north - Cat Ba, national park and Ba Be and Cuc Phuong lakes and parks in the south - Bac Ma and Cat Tien (Table 2).

Table 2.

The most famous national parks in Vietnam

National Park, year of foundation	Geographical position	Protected natural sites
Catba, 1964.	Cat Ba Island, Ha Long Bay. 20° N 107°E	Karst limestone islands emerging almost vertically from the water. Highest point park - 331 m. Wooded mountains, fresh water lakes, swampy forests, mangroves, sandy beaches and coral reefs. Evergreen tropical forests, 350 plant species are listed in the Red Book. Fauna - 200 species of coral fish, various species of sea turtles, dolphins and seals, about 100 species of birds
Babe, 1978.	22° N 105°E	3 lakes - Pelam, Pelu, Peleng, 106 species of freshwater fish. Waterfalls, caves and rocks of unusual shape. Tropical rainforest - about 400 species.
Cuc Phuong, 1962.	21° N 106°E 20° N 105°E	Tropical rainforest. 100 species of mammals and reptiles and over 300 species of birds. The park is famous for its diversity of flora, including medicinal plants and tall 1000-year-old trees.
Bak Ma, 1986.	16° N 107°E Truong Son ridge.	The border between the flora and fauna of Northern and Southern Vietnam. The wettest place in Vietnam. GKO on Mount Bak Ma (1448 m) is 7977 mm. 48 species of mammals, 249 species of birds. 1700 plant species. Monkeys - Duke's langur and white-cheeked gibbon.
Phong Nha-Kebang, 1986 - nature reserve, 2003 - UNESCO World Heritage Site. Criteria: VIII	17° N 106°E	The largest concentration of limestone karst mountains is near the Vietnamese-Laotian border. 300 caves and grottoes with a total length of 126 km. The longest cave is Son Doong 7.2 km.
Ha Long, 1994. 2000 - object natural heritage UNESCO. Criteria: VII, VIII.	19°N 107°E Bac Bo Bay Ha Long Bay	Three thousand islands, islets and small rocks of various shapes and outlines (tower karst) rise steeply from the sea waters. The most surreal seascape.
Cat Tien, 1992 - national park	11° N 107°"E	Diverse flora and fauna of the wetland ecosystem, cultural and historical sites

The predominance of mountainous terrain determines the altitudinal zone. In the tropical forests of Vietnam, up to an altitude of 700-900 m, palm trees, ficus trees (up to 40 m or more in height), vines, bamboos, and epiphytes are common. In mid-mountain forests up to an altitude of 700-1800 m, evergreen species also predominate, but deciduous trees also appear, the forest becomes lower (up to 20-25 m). Laurels, magnolias, evergreen oaks, tree ferns grow here, wild bananas grow in damp gorges, and bamboos grow in the undergrowth. Above 1800 m, “foggy forests” are common, dominated by evergreen oaks and coniferous trees; the trees are covered with mosses and lichens, the lower tiers are occupied by bamboo, rhododendron, and ferns.

Mangroves stretch along the coast, forming in the tidal zone, where the soils are oversaturated with water and saline solution. A special feature of mangrove forests is the abundance of stilted and breathing roots, as well as the presence of “viviparous” trees. The total area of ​​mangroves in the country is about 400 thousand hectares, of which 300 thousand hectares are located in Nambo and the southern part of Chungbo, where mangrove forests are especially numerous to the west of Cape Camau.

Thus, the unique tropical forest landscapes and comfortable climatic conditions on the east coast most of the year contribute to the development of recreational, cognitive and educational tourism in Vietnam.

Bibliography

1. Gvozdetsky N.A., Golubchikov Yu.N. Mountains. - M.: Mysl, 1987.
2. Countries and peoples. Popular scientific geographical and ethnographic publication in 20 volumes. Foreign Asia. Southeast Asia. – M.: Mysl, 1979. – P. 24-78.
3. Gordeyeva M.M., Bobrov V.V., Pham D.T., Kuleshova L.V. Natural reafforestation in abandoned fields (Northern Vietnam) // Forest for Sustainable Development (Eds. Desh Bandhu and L. M. Saxena). New-Delhi, 1991, pp. 214-225.
4. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/ Vulnerabilty, Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change: Vietnam // The Worldbank Group, 2011.