Natural areas of vietnam. Vietnam's natural and recreational resources

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Geographical location and nature

State of Southeast Asia. In the west it borders with Laos (the length of the border is 1,555 km) and Cambodia (982 km), in the north - with China (1,281 km), in the east and south Vietnam is washed by the waters of the South China Sea. The total length of the border is 3818 km, the length of the coastline is 3444 km. The total area of ​​the country is 329,566 km 2 (land area is 325,360 km 2). The country's territory is a narrow strip stretching from north to south. In the north is the Yunnan Highlands with the highest point in the country - Mount Fanshipan (3,143 m), crossed by the valley of the Hongha (Red) River. To the south are the chain of the Annam mountains. Parallel to it, a narrow coastal plain stretches from north to south. In the south lies the flat area of ​​the Mekong Delta. The main Natural resources: iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, timber, oil and gas deposits have been discovered in the Vietnamese sector of the shelf zone of the South China Sea. Arable land is used for 22% of the country's territory, forests and shrubs occupy 40% of all land.

Population

The population is 74 393 324 people (1995), the average population density is 225 people per km 2. Among the inhabitants, the Vietnamese prevail (86% of the population), the Chinese make up 3% of the population, other ethnic groups - Muong, Tai, Meo, Chamk, Khmer, Man .. Official language Vietnamese, French, English, Chinese, Khmer are also widespread. Among the believers there are Buddhists, Confucians, Taoists, Catholics, Muslims, Protestants, adherents of local pagan beliefs. Fertility - 26.25 newborns per 1,000 people (1995). Mortality - 7.6 deaths per 1,000 people (infant mortality rate - 44.6 deaths per 1,000 newborns). Average life expectancy: men - 64 years, women - 68 years (1995).

The country's climate is subequatorial in the south, monsoon in the north with hot and rainy summers (from mid-May to mid-September) and mild winters (from mid-October to mid-March). Typhoons are frequent on the coast of Vietnam (in the northern part of the country in June-July, in the central part in August, in the southern part in September-October). On average, from 1,500 to 3,000 mm of precipitation falls annually.

Vegetable world

About 40% of the country's territory is covered with tropical mixed forests, in which deciduous tree species (iron and sandalwood trees), lianas, bamboo, and pine grow. The areas of river deltas are characterized by dense mangrove thickets.

Animal world

Monkeys, squirrels, tigers, leopards live in the forests of Vietnam, there are also elephants, bears, and deer. A wide variety of birds, many reptiles, including crocodiles, lizards, snakes.

State structure, political parties

The full name is the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV). The state structure is a republic. The country is divided into 50 provinces, 3 municipalities. The capital is Hanoi. It gained independence on September 2, 1945 from France, this day is celebrated as a National Day. Executive power belongs to the president (head of state), prime minister (head of government - the Council of Ministers). Legislative power is exercised by a unicameral parliament - the National Assembly. The ruling party, the Communist Party of Vietnam, is the only political party in the country.

Economy, transport communications

In a centralized economy, state ownership of the means of production prevails. GNP was in 1994. $ 83.5 billion (GNP per capita - $ 1,140). Per capita output is one of the lowest in the world. The basis of the economy is agriculture (it accounts for half of the GNP, employs 70% of the working-age population). The main agricultural crop is rice; corn, cassava, sorghum, sweet potatoes (yams) are produced in large volumes; important commercial crops - rubber, soybeans, coffee, tea. Most of the mineral resources are concentrated in the north, including coal, which is an important export. Oil was found in south coast in 1986, oil and rice are now the main export commodities. The most developed are the food, textile, mining, oil-extracting industries, mechanical engineering. As a result of government reforms, private sector economic activity has increased. The monetary unit is dong (1 dong (D) equals 100 sous). Major trading partners: Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, France, North Korea.

The total length of railways - 3,059 km, motorways - about 85,000 km, inland waterways - 17,702 km. Main seaports: Da Nang, Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City.

The first state on the territory of modern Vietnam was Wanlang (1 millennium BC), which was later replaced by the kingdoms of Aulak and Namviet (3rd century BC). In 221, Vietnam fell under the rule of the Chinese emperors and remained part of the Chinese Empire until 939. In 968, Ding Bo Li proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Vietnamese state of Daiviet. The Li dynasty ruled the country until 1225, when the Tran dynasty took over power in the country. In 1406 the Chinese troops occupied the country again, but in 1427 the Vietnamese, having driven out the invaders, regained their independence. At the beginning of the 17th century. Vietnam was divided into two parts - North and South - which were ruled, respectively, by the Trin and Nguyen dynasties. At this time, the first Europeans appeared in the country - the Dutch, the British, and in the 18th century. - French people. In 1802, the Nguyen Dynasty united the entire empire, calling it Vietnam. In 1858, under the pretext of protecting Christians and missionaries, France sent troops to Vietnam, and in 1884 Vietnam became a de facto French protectorate. In 1940-1945. the country was occupied by Japanese troops. After liberation in 1946, Vietnam was proclaimed the Republic of Indochina. In December 1946, the Indo-Chinese war began, as a result of which France in 1954 lost Vietnam, as well as other colonies - Laos and Cambodia. According to the Geneva Agreements, Vietnam was divided into two states. In the south of the country, the Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed, and in the northern part of the country in 1959 the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was formed, headed by a prominent politician Ho Chi Minh. In the 60s. an armed conflict began between the two Vietnamese states, which gradually escalated into a large-scale war, in which the United States of America intervened, supporting the government of South Vietnam. The war ended with the signing of the Paris ceasefire agreement in 1973, but the conflict continued until the fall of the Saigon regime in 1975. The official unification of North and South Vietnam into a single state took place in July 1976. the liberalization of the economy began in the country, which made it possible to achieve significant economic growth and an increase in the living standards of the population.

Vietnam is often called the land of fairies and dragons - according to ancient legends, all Vietnamese consider themselves to be the descendants of the marriage of Fairy and Dragon. The fairy was in charge of the industry - she taught people how to make silk, and the Dragon showed the children the wisdom of agriculture. Since then, the Vietnamese have thrived in both directions.

The name of the country is translated as “the country of the southern Vieta (the name of the nation), but the country was called Annam until 1945, and the name Vietnam was used only in poetic speech. Emperor Bao Dai immortalized the new name.

Geographic characteristics

The state, elongated in the shape of the letter "S", is located in Southeast Asia, in the east of the Indochina peninsula. Neighbors from the west are Laos, Cambodia and China.

The coast of Vietnam is washed from the east and south by the South China Sea and Bakbo Bay, a small south-western tip has an outlet to the Gulf of Thailand.

Vietnam's area - 329.6 thousand sq. km. The capital of the state is Hanoi. Political system- a socialist republic. The official head of the state is the Communist Party.

Nature

More than 80% of the country is mountainous, descending to the sea. The highest point in the country is Mount Fansipan, 3143 meters high. The upland is located in the north-west of the country, in the Hoanglienshon mountain range. The Truong Son Mountains stretch along the western border of the country, separating Vietnam from Laos and China.

The central and southern parts of Vietnam are occupied by basement and basalt plateaus, on which several frozen volcanoes rise. The area between the volcanoes is covered with forest, and lakes have formed in the craters of some volcanoes, giving rise to several rivers of the Mekong River Basin ...

In Vietnam, there are more than 2000 rivers of various depths and sizes (the smallest reaches only 10 meters in length). The largest rivers in Vietnam - the Mekong and Hong Ha (Red River) - flow into the South China Sea.

The Mekong Delta is one of the largest and deepest deltas in the world. On the territory of Vietnam, the area with a delta that forms nine branches ("Nine Dragons") even received special economic importance - the Vietnamese first settled here, began to develop wetlands, began to breed fish in canals and man-made ponds.

In the delta of the Hong Ha River, on the Bakbo Plain, stands the capital city of Hanoi. The territory is marked by the highest population density.

The largest lake in the country, Hoan Kiem, is an oxbow lake formed as a result of a change in the course of the Red River. The lake is of great cultural and historical importance to the people. It is also called the Lake of the Returned Sword: according to legend, one of the ancient rulers of Vietnam defeated the Chinese armies with an accidentally found sword that belonged to a magical golden turtle. After the victories, the turtles came out of the waters of the lake and took the sword.

To the north of the capital there is a chain of picturesque Ba Be lakes. Lakes Pelam, Pelu and Peleng are surrounded by waterfalls and caves ...

The coast of Vietnam is washed by one sea - South China, it is semi-enclosed and is included in the basins of the Indian and Pacific oceans and has the properties of both oceans.

The largest island in the South China Sea is Hainan. The area is comfortable for a tourist holiday, as the sea is clean and warm. However, there are many predatory fish in the sea and dangerous sharks... The sea is also rich in commercial fish species - tuna, herring and sardines are abundant here ...

Some unique plants in Vietnam have become national symbols countries: for example, bamboo, red and black sandalwood.

In Vietnam, there are animals listed in the Red Book, which are almost gone in the wild in other parts of the world - these are the Asian buffalo, Javanese and Sumatran rhinos. Several species of monkeys, rodents and bats are endemic (animals that live exclusively in the specified area). An Asian elephant, a black gibbon, and an Indo-Chinese tiger are considered a rarity in Vietnam. Animals live both in the wild, in protected reserves, and on special farms ...

Due to the elongation of the country from north to south, the climate of Vietnam is heterogeneous, although in general the country is located in the subequatorial monsoon climate. In the south, winters are dry and hot (the temperature reaches 26 degrees Celsius), in the north - colder, but wet and mild (up to 15 degrees Celsius). Summer is the monsoon season throughout the country, and the end of summer is usually marked by devastating typhoons.

There are frosts in the mountains, on the borders with China, from where cool air penetrates, temperatures drop to 1 degree Celsius are noted ...

Resources

The industrial centers of Vietnam - Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Da Nang - are located in Central and South Vietnam. The industry is represented by metallurgical, machine-building, construction, chemical areas, light industry. Electronics and components, production of textiles and leather, glass, jewelry and cosmetic products went to the world export. A special branch of the economy is the global production of electricity thanks to an extensive network of hydroelectric power plants.

The fertile basalts of the area contribute to the successful growth of cultures in tropical and temperate latitudes, therefore, agriculture has developed greatly on the plateaus of Vietnam - this cluster employs 50% of the country's population. Basically, rice, tea and coffee are grown, the production of cashews, spices, tropical fruits is highly developed ...

The culture

The indigenous population of the country is Vieta (kin), 54 more nationalities are recognized as related to them in the country. In the south, most of the population is Khmer (lower viet). There is a large proportion of the Chinese population, Polynesian, Malay and Thai peoples.

The Vietnamese language has the status of the state language. More than 85% of the population profess Buddhism, there are also religions of these national minorities, atheism, Christianity ...

Socialist Republic, state in the South-East. Asia. The initial region resettlement of the Vieta people included more sowing. bass ground. xijiang river (South China) , from where the vietas gradually moved along the coastal plains to NS. Hence the name - "southern viet" or "country of the southern viet" (viet, stalemate "south") , in contrast to other areas that are inhabited by other groups of vietas.

Geographical names of the world: Toponymic dictionary. - M: AST... Pospelov E.M. 2001.

Vietnam

(Công Hòa Xa Hôi Chu Nghia Viêt Nam), Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), state in South-East. Asia, on the Peninsula Indochina ... Pl. 332 thousand km²; is divided into 52 provinces and 3 cities as provinces: Hanoi (capital), Ho Chi Minh City , Haiphong ... The first state of Diveet was formed in the 10th century. to the north of the country at the hall. Bakbo ... In 1858–84. Hungary was seized by France and dismembered into three parts, which became part of French Indochina. In 1941–45. occupied by Japan. After the war, 2 states were formed: to the north from 17 ° N lat. - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, to the south - the Republic of Vietnam with the center in Saigon. The war of the Saigon authorities in 1965–73. (with the participation of American troops) with the partisans ended in 1976 with the reunification of the country. The head of state is the president, the legislative power belongs to the Nat. meeting.
OK. 4/5 of the territory is occupied by mountains and plateaus (the highest point of the country is the city of Fanshipan, 3143 m); in the south, the plateaus and plateaus of Kontum, Darlak, and others; along the west. borders - mountains Truong Son ... On the coast - low. plains. The climate is tropical and monsoon: with hot (in the south) and cool (in the north) winters and everywhere hot and very humid (especially in the mountains) summers. Typhoons and floods are frequent; in winter, droughts occur, and in the north, cold spells (hail, frost, frost). The country is cut through by rivers and canals that are of great importance in the life of Hungary (water resources, irrigation, timber rafting, transport, fish, water vegetables, silt after the spill, and floating villages on junks). Mekong (or Kyulong - "9 dragons") flows into 9 mains. branches into the South China Sea, a large delta is formed by the river. Hongha ... A huge number (in each village) of ponds and lakes (with thickets of hyacinth and lotus). Up to 40% of the territory is covered with tropical rainforests (mainly in the mountains), where teak, iron, red, ebony, camphor and other valuable tree species grow. Instead of degraded forests, shrubs, sparse forests and savannas appear; along the rivers - bamboo; on the coast - swamps, mangroves, palm trees; sacred banyan tree. Nat. parks, Kukfyong nature reserve; reserves, sanctuaries. Rich and varied fauna.
Population 79.9 million. (2001); over 60 nationalities; OK. 88% - Vietnamese (self-name - Vieta or Thin); the rest are Khmers (0.8 million people), Myongs (0.8 million people), Chinese, Tai, Thai, and others. language - Vietnamese (Vietnamese alphabet on a Latin basis). Religion - Mahayama Buddhism, intertwined with Taoism, Confucianism and the cult of ancestors (10 million believers), Catholicism (6 million people); in the south, there are the Kaodai (2 million) and Khaohao (1 million) sects. The most populated are river valleys and coastal areas (in the Hong Ha delta there are over 1000 people per 1 km²); are characteristic explosive growth population, overpopulation in rural areas, unemployment, emigration. Citizens 20%. Like China, Britain is building socialism with nat. specifics: the market, mixed ownership, attracting foreign capital and the significant role of the state. Stable GDP growth at the level of 8% (in 1995 - 9.5%). He sat down. farming provides the country with food and allows to export surplus rice. Main the area of ​​agriculture - river deltas, terraces are created on the slopes of the mountains. Rice, corn, and sugar are grown. reed, cassava, oilseeds, coconut palm, hevea, pepper, coffee, tea, fruits, vegetables, flowers, tobacco, cotton, kapok, castor oil plant, jute, ramie, mulberry, satu (for weaving mats and dishes), lacquer wood. Pigs, large horns are bred. cattle, buffaloes (as draft), poultry; walk-in (to S.). Fish (including in rice fields - checks). Logging and collection of shellac, cardamom, star anise, cinnamon, benzoy, gum, rosin. The leading branches of the industry are fuel and energy and mining. Large oil reserves (offshore), Kam. coal, apatite, polymetallic ores, bauxite. Extraction also of gold, silver, salt (from sea water). The largest in the South-East. Asia hydroelectric power station Hoa Binh on the r. Yes ("black"). Food, tab., Text., Sewing, woodworking, cellulose-paper., Cement., Glass., Chemical., Rubber, pharmaceutical. prom-st. Machine-tion, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. Over 100 types of handicrafts (1.6 million employed): weaving from bamboo and reed, wood and ivory carving; painting on silk, lacquer and ceramics; embroidery, manufacture of articles from bronze, silver, etc. Tourism. Trans-Vietnamese Railway Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh City (1.7 thousand km) serves internal. and external relations. 12 airports, incl. international Rice (4th place in the world in terms of export), oil, coal, garments, coffee, and seafood are exported. Competently 80% of the population. Un-you, museums; ancient art theater; architect. Mi Son ensembles and Dong Duong pagoda in Quang Nam (VIII – IX centuries), palaces, temple ensembles, distinguished by their miniature size. Monetary unit. - dong.

Dictionary of modern geographical names... - Yekaterinburg: U-Factoria. Under the general editorship of Acad. V. M. Kotlyakova. 2006 .

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), a state in the eastern part of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It borders in the north with China, in the west with Laos and Cambodia, washed by the South China Sea and its bays Bakbo (Tonkin) and Siam. The state consists of three historical regions: North (Bakbo), Central (Chungbo) and South (Nambo). During the domination of the French from the end of the 19th century. they were respectively called Tonkin, Annam and Cochinhina ( see also FRENCH INDOCHINA).
In 1945, the Vietnam Independence Struggle League (Viet Minh) announced the formation of the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In the War of Resistance (1946-1954), the Vietnamese, as a result of the victory at Dien Bien Phu, forced the French troops to leave Indochina. The war ended with the signing of an agreement between the warring parties. The country was divided along the 17th parallel. The section was recognized as temporary, but the planned elections with the aim of uniting Vietnam did not take place. The northern part of the country became the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, or North Vietnam, with an area of ​​158,335 square kilometers. km, on which about half of the total population lived. The capital of the DRV was the city of Hanoi. The other part - the Republic of Vietnam, or South Vietnam, occupied an area of ​​173,354 square meters. km. The capital was in Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City). In the late 1950s, war broke out between North and South Vietnam, and in the 1960s, hostilities became widespread. The war ended in 1975 with the victory of the DRV. On July 2, 1976, the official unification of North and South Vietnam took place and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was formed.
NATURE
Terrain relief. The territory of Vietnam is elongated in the meridional direction (the distance between the extreme northern and southern points- OK. 1750 km), and in the latitudinal direction its length is from 616 km in the north (from Mongkai to the Vietnamese-Lao border) to 46.5 km in the central part (in the Chungbo region). The coastline, which resembles the letter S, is 3260 km long. The location of Vietnam at the junction of several natural zones, as well as the presence of an ancient geological structure, determine the diversity of its natural conditions. The relief of the country is mostly mountainous. More than three quarters of the territory is occupied by mountains, plateaus and plateaus. Vietnam also owns islands and archipelagos. The largest of them are Baytilong, Koto, Catba, Kondao in the South China Sea, Phu Quoc in the Gulf of Thailand, etc. The area of ​​the continental shelf is approx. 500 thousand sq. km. Vietnam is separated from neighboring states by mountain ranges.
From the northern border of the country in the southeast direction, the Hoanglien Son ridge (translated as "Main mountain range") stretches, forming the watershed of the Hongha (Red) and Da rivers. Within this ridge throughout the entire approx. 200 km there are several peaks with elevations of more than 2500 m, including the most high mountain Indo-China Fanshipan (3143 m). Further to the west, up to the border with Laos, a series of lower parallel ridges with peaks from 1600 to 2100 m can be traced. The right tributaries of the Hong Ha River, crossing the Hoanglien Son Mountains, have narrow canyon-like valleys. Although the mountain slopes are usually forested, landslides, rockfalls and mudflows are common during the rainy season.
To the south of the 20th parallel along the border with Laos and Cambodia, the Truong Son Mountains ("Long Mountains") stretch for 1200 km, with steep eastern slopes and stepping down to the west to the valley of the Mekong River. The highest point is Mount Sailileng (2711 m) in the northwest, on the border with Laos. Structurally, North and South Truong Son are clearly distinguished. North Truong Son is a series of ridges stretching at different angles towards the coast. The rivers flowing down from the mountains carry their waters in the southeast and east directions.
Southern Truong Son forms a system of ridges, uplands, plateaus and valleys. To the south of the 15th parallel there is a group of peaks with heights of more than 2000 m. The highest of them is the Ngoklin peak (2598 m), folded by granites. Between 11 and 12 ° N individual peaks reach 2100 m. The most extensive plateaus of South Truong Son - Kontum, Pleiku, Darlak, Langbyang and Zilin - are united under the general name Teingguyen ("Western plateaus"). Their average heights are 500–1000 m. These plateaus are composed of basalt lavas, among which there are picturesque cones of extinct volcanoes. Mount Hamrong ("Dragon's Mouth") on the Pleiku plateau stands out. Numerous rivers originate from these plateaus, belonging to the Mekong basin or flowing directly into the ocean. Some ranges of South Truong Son come close to the coast of the South China Sea.
The plains in Vietnam account for only a quarter of the entire territory, but it is there that the main economic activity is concentrated. The most extensive plains are formed by the Hong Ha river deltas in the north and the Mekong in the south. A chain of narrow coastal plains and deltas of relatively small rivers stretches between them. The total flow of Vietnamese rivers is 785 cubic meters. km, and more than 76% falls on the basins of the Mekong (475 cubic km) and Hongkh (121 cubic km). Other large rivers are Ma, Ka, Thubon.
A plain with an area of ​​approx. 15 thousand sq. km in the lower reaches of the Hong Ha River (its length in Vietnam is about 510 km) is composed of Holocene alluvium, which was deposited at the bottom of an ancient shallow bay. The absolute height of the delta surface is less than 25 m. Exceptionally fertile soils have formed on the alluvial deposits. Only on the northern and southern periphery of this plain is the more ancient alluvium widespread. In some places, there are remnant mountains, sand dunes and sea terraces built of limestone. Due to the large volume of solid river flows, their deltas are annually moved into the sea at a distance of up to 100 m. Since the Hong Ha delta has been inhabited for several millennia, the natural vegetation cover has been largely destroyed and it has undergone significant anthropogenic changes. Over the centuries, to prevent flooding, approx. 3000 km of dams. Hong Ha, like other rivers of the Bakbo region (Da, Lo, Thaibin), is distinguished by a sharp drop in level during the rainy and dry seasons - from 30 thousand to 700 cubic meters. m.
The Mekong Delta (its length within Vietnam is 250 km), on the contrary, is largely untouched by humans, especially in the northwest (Dongthap province) and in the extreme south (Kamau Peninsula). Delta area - approx. 50 thousand sq. km. It is also formed as a result of the deposition of river sediments in the sea bay, which once extended to the Phnom Penh region. In fact, near the Cambodian capital, the Mekong delta region begins, the channel of which is further downstream divided into two main branches - the Mekong proper and Bassak. In turn, these waterways, passing through the territory of Vietnam for a third of their way to the sea, are divided into seven more channels. Two other rivers, the Kadong and Dong Nai, took part in the formation of a single alluvial lowland. The Mekong is also called Kyulong ("9 dragons") in Vietnam. The river carries a lot of suspended sediment, especially in the southern channels, and the rate of land advancing on the sea reaches an average of 60–80 m per year. The Mekong Delta has the world's densest hydrographic network, with artificial canal systems. The movement of people in the area is carried out almost exclusively by sampan boats. The active development of the Mekong Delta began about 300 years ago, and now 60% of all rice and most of the fruits harvested in the country are produced here.
The coastal plains of the Chungbo region, stretching in a narrow ribbon, arose as a result of the accumulative activity of watercourses flowing from the eastern slopes of the Truong Son mountains. Almost all of the provincial borders run along river channels. The seaside strip is divided by spurs of mountain ranges and ridges of hills into isolated, small in area lowlands, the largest of which, in the north of Thanh Hoa province, covers an area of ​​3200 sq. km.
Vietnam has large reserves of hydropower resources. For example, the energy potential of the Hongha River is at least 1.5–2 million kW. On the Da (Chernaya) River, with the assistance of the USSR, the largest hydroelectric power station in Vietnam, Hoa Binh, was built.
A special landmark of Vietnam is Halong Bay in Bacbo Bay (Tonkin), recognized by UNESCO as one of the wonders of the world. 1600 small islands and bizarre rocks, reminiscent of fighting cocks, frogs, ritual vases, etc. are scattered across the azure sea space of this bay. On the rocky islands there are caves with stalactites and stalagmites. On the sea coasts of Vietnam, with beaches of white and golden sand, there are resort areas Vung Tau, Nha Trang, Doshon, etc.
Climate. Vietnam is divided into three climatic regions: North, Central and South. Due to the diversity of the relief and the change in the direction of the winds during the year, significant internal differences can be traced in the regions themselves.
The northern region, extending north of 18 ° N, is characterized by a humid hot summer during the equatorial monsoon, blowing from The Pacific, and damp, cool winters, when the effect of cold north-westerly winds. On the plains, including the deltas, the average temperatures of the three winter months are 17-20 ° C. But there are days when the thermometer drops below 5 ° C. In the vicinity of Hanoi, located on absolute height OK. 5 m, in the coldest time of the year the air warms up to 14-16 ° C, at night the temperature can drop to 2.7 ° C. In the mountains, winters are long and harsh, frosts occur in the border ridges. In the Shapa area, at an altitude of approx. 1570 m, and sometimes even snow falls in other high places. From late January to mid-March, constant drizzle is common.
The summer, rainy season, which lasts from April to October, stands out. From July to September, approximately 80% of the annual rainfall falls (in Hanoi, 300 mm in each of these months). In the hottest months, the average maximum air temperature in the capital is 31–32 ° С, and the recorded absolute maximum is 42.8 ° С. Since the difference between the average maximum and average minimum temperatures is 14–16 °, the climate of the northern region cannot be called tropical. However, soils, vegetation and animal world are distinctly tropical in nature. In the Northern region, sections of primary tropical forests have survived, in which trees reach a height of 50–55 m.
In contrast, the South Region, located west of 108 ° E. and south of 13 ° S, it has a typical tropical monsoon climate. The northern winds do not penetrate into southern Vietnam, so the temperature regime is stable throughout the year. In the Mekong Delta, for example, the average temperatures are 26-27 ° C, their amplitude between the hottest and coldest months does not exceed 3-4 °. According to moisture availability, two seasons are distinguished - wet and dry. During the first, starting in April-May and ending in October-November, more than 90% of the annual rainfall (equal to approx. 2000 mm) usually falls, and during the second - only 7%. Sometimes there are droughts. Typhoons sometimes hit the coastline.
The climate of the Central Region is significantly influenced by the Truong Son Mountains and their spurs, which serve as a barrier that prevents the penetration of humid southwestern winds in summer. The rains begin in August and reach their maximum intensity in October-November, when clear weather sets in the rest of the country. It happens that the wet period lasts until January. More precipitation, up to 3000–3500 mm on average per year, is received by the northern half of this climatic region, primarily the eastern ridges and foothills of the Truong Son, to a lesser extent - the coastal plains. The famous Dalat resort is located on a mountain plateau at 1800 m level, where the air temperature does not exceed + 25 ° C all year round.
The destruction of forests has led to the intensification of destructive floods on the rivers of the Chungbo region. During the wet season, there are frequent invasions of powerful typhoons, the strength of which decreases towards the south. The winter months are quite cool in the area located between 16 and 20 ° N. In January, the air temperature is below 20 ° C. South of 16 ° N. all year round it is warm and the temperature regime is similar to the conditions of southern Vietnam.
Minerals. The bowels of Vietnam, especially its northern and northwestern regions, are rich in minerals. The most important among them are oil and gas found in the basins of the Hongha and Mekong rivers, mainly on the continental shelf. The results of the geological exploration work carried out within the Hanoi trough indicate the presence of significant reserves of natural gas. According to estimates, the total oil reserves on the continental shelf are approximately 2.5 billion tons. Coal reserves are estimated at 130 billion tons, of which 5.2 billion tons are hard coal, 125 billion tons are brown. The largest coal deposit in Southeast Asia is in the Quang Ninh province (approximately 12-15 billion tons). There are deposits of iron ore, manganese, lead, bauxite, zinc, copper, chromium, graphite, asbestos, barium, mica, feldspar, gold, silver, titanium ores, and rare earth metals. Industrial tin mining is underway (Tintuk in the Bakbo region), there are huge reserves of apatite (Lao Cai in Bakbo - up to 1 billion tons).
Soils. The processes of soil formation in Vietnam in a humid tropical climate are very intensive throughout the year. As a result, soil profiles with a thickness of several meters are formed. The zonal soils of Vietnam are different types of laterites (red soils, yellow soils, mountain laterites). The most fertile soils are formed on volcanic rocks. The most economically important are the azonal alluvial soils of the plains, especially the Mekong and Hongkha deltas. Many low-lying areas are boggy and swampy soils are common there. The largest areas of such soils are concentrated in the Mekong Delta. In coastal areas, soils are saline in places.
Vegetable world. A significant part of Vietnam's territory, mainly in the mountains, is covered with forests (7.8 million hectares). The total timber reserves are estimated at 565.6 million cubic meters. m. The operational reserves of wood are 226 million cubic meters. m. The zonal types of vegetation in Vietnam are mainly secondary moist evergreen tropical forests, and in those areas in the south of the country where the amount of precipitation is much less, there are savannas and sparse tropical forests. Areas of primary tropical rainforests have also survived. In Vietnam, many valuable tree species grow: iron, black, pink, camphor, ebony, sandalwood, etc., more than 30 types of bamboo are widespread. 76 species of forest plants provide aromatic substances, 600 species - tannin, 200 - dyes, 260 species - oil. Raw materials for various industries are red shellac, cinnamon, anise, pine extract.
Due to the predominance of mountainous relief, in addition to the latitudinal zonation of vegetation, its altitudinal zonality is expressed. The lower parts of the mountains (up to heights of 800–1000 m in Nambo and 600–700 m in the cooler Bakbo) are covered with humid tropical evergreen forests. Above them, up to 1700–2000 m above sea level, broad-leaved subtropical mountain forests with undergrowth of various bamboos grow, and even higher there are mixed forests, where, in addition to oak, maple and ash, there are conifers.
In the coastal zone, mangroves are widespread: in Nambo they reach a height of 25-30 m, in Bakbo - 2-3 m. The total area of ​​mangroves is approx. 400 thousand hectares, of which 300 thousand are located in Nambo and the southern part of Chunbo. Coconut groves are common in the lowlands of the country. On the plateau in the southwestern region, savannah forests grow and savannahs with thickets of hard grasses and bamboo are located.
Animal world Vietnam has approx. 170 species of mammals, about 970 species of birds, 270 species of reptiles, more than 1000 species of marine and freshwater fish. In the coastal waters, crabs, shrimps, and molluscs are found. In the rainforest zone, panthers, leopards, tigers, monkeys (macaques and gibbons), bears, tree civets, flying squirrels, large monitor lizards, white and green parrots, pheasants, and peacocks are common. Rhinos are rare. There are many snakes (boas, cobras, etc.), turtles, lizards. The savannah forests and savannas are inhabited by the Indian elephant, antelopes, deer, buffaloes, wild boars, eagles, and partridges. Settle in river deltas and swamps pink flamingos, storks, pelicans, herons, wild ducks, geese. The flooded fields are teeming with fish and small crabs. There are many freshwater fish in rivers and lakes.
Marine resources are diverse and favor the development of not only fishing, but also tourism and recreation. The stocks of sea fish in the shelf zone are estimated at about 3 million tons per year, and shrimp - at 65 thousand tons. There are significant stocks of shellfish, seaweed and other seafood.
In order to preserve wildlife and rare plants (including medicinal ones), 87 specially protected areas with a total area of ​​750 thousand hectares are being created in Vietnam, incl. 7 national parks, 80 wildlife sanctuaries and reserves. The area of ​​protected areas on the Teingguen plateau will be approx. 240 thousand hectares. It is planned to create national parks in the area of ​​the Babe reservoir, on the island of Kondao and in other regions.
POPULATION
Demographic data. According to an estimate for 2003, the country has 81.62 million inhabitants belonging to 54 ethnic groups. More than 64% are Vietnamese aged 15 to 64. Women make up 51% of the population. The average life expectancy in the country is 70.05 (men - 67.58, women - 72.7) The population growth rate in 2003 was estimated at 1.29%.
Relatively complete demographic statistics refer to 1995. Then out of 72,916 thousand inhabitants, 14 566 thousand people lived in cities, and 58 350 thousand people lived in rural areas (in the North, respectively, 5250 thousand and 31 450 thousand, and in the South, 9316 thousand. and 26 900 thousand people). The population of the country in 1990-1995 increased by an average of 2.4% per year, and in the villages this figure was 2.6%, and in the cities - 1.5%.
In the northern part of Vietnam, population growth was estimated at 2.2% in rural areas and 3% in urban settlements (in the delta region of the Hong Ha River, respectively 1.8% and 3.4%), in the southern - 3.1 and 0, 7%. Thus, the process of urbanization in the Mekong Delta has actually stopped. Moreover, in the areas where the three largest centers are located (Ho Chi Minh City, Bien Hoa and Vung Tau) and administrative centers four provinces, the rural population in the first half of the 1990s increased by an average of 4.4%. The significant pace of urbanization in North Vietnam is partly the result of land scarcity and limited agricultural development opportunities.
Ethnic composition and languages. When the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was proclaimed in 1945, there were up to 70 nationalities in the country. Linguistically, they belong to three families: Sino-Tibetan, Austro-Asian and Austronesian, and further are subdivided into a number of groups. Notable differences are also observed in the lifestyle and management practices of ethnic groups. For hundreds and thousands of years, some peoples were engaged in plowed rice cultivation, others in slash-and-burn agriculture, and others led a semi-nomadic lifestyle, earning a livelihood by gathering, hunting and fishing.
Until 1945, the people of the plains were primarily called Vietnamese. Recently, the ethnonym "Viet" has become the most commonly used ethnonym, and all the inhabitants of Vietnam are called "Vietnamese". In 2003 the vietas were approx. 85/90% of the country's population, close to them in culture and language, Myong live in the mountainous area of ​​Bakbo and the province of Nghe An, the Chinese, Thais and others accounted for 5-15%. Two more large ethnic communities are settled on the plains: the Chinese and the Khmer (Cambodian). The Chinese, of whom there are approx. 1 million people are concentrated primarily in the former city of Cholon ("Tolon", ie "Big Market"), which has turned into a large district of Ho Chi Minh, and control up to 40% of the national capital in Vietnam. Khmers, numbering approx. 850 thousand people, settled mainly in the Mekong delta region and in the city of Ho Chi Minh.
Other peoples of Vietnam are divided into the following linguistic families and groups: Austroasians speaking Thai languages ​​- thai, nung, thai, lao, zey, santyai (shantai), ly, bui; in the languages ​​of the meo-zao group - meo (hmong), cao; in the Mon-Khmer languages ​​- bakhnars, sedangi, mnongi, ma, koho, khre, stiengi, kkhmu living in the southwestern part of the country. The Pleiku and Darlak plateaus are inhabited by peoples speaking the Malay-Polynesian languages ​​of the Austronesian family - Jarai, Ede, Raglai, Tyuru, Ede-bih. The language of the Malay-Polynesian group is also spoken by the Tama (Cham), now a few descendants of the ancient people of rice growers, who created in the 2nd century. AD on the territory of present-day Chungbo, the state of Champa (Champa) and a vibrant culture under strong Indian influence. The Sino-Tibetan language family is also represented by the Tibeto-Burmese branch: hani, fula, lahu, lolo.
Religion. Vietnamese society is prone to religious syncretism. This is reflected in the fact that in the communal house (dingh), which also serves as a village temple, altars are presented with a pantheon of various local patron spirits and numerous images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, Confucius and historical figures. In Buddhist temples, not only Buddha is often worshiped, but also local deities and spirits. In almost every peasant dwelling, you can see two altars - one dedicated to the ancestors, and the other to the Spirit of the Earth (Ong Dia).
Most Vietnamese, regardless of religious preferences and political views, believe that keeping the memory of their ancestors is their moral and religious duty. The grave is a haven for the departed, but in fact they are not dead: when a person becomes a deceased, his soul continues to exist. The living and the dead live in the same world, but exist in different forms. Therefore, ancestors take part in the daily affairs of their descendants and protect them, sometimes visiting during sleep or warning of impending danger. In view of the fact that the souls of ancestors play such an important role in the destinies and well-being of descending generations, filial and daughter duties require that they observe long mourning for the dead, take care of sacrifices and keep the graves and cemeteries in order.
At the beginning of the 20th century. In those areas of the Mekong Basin where colonization and development of agricultural lands took place, two new religious sects arose: Kaodai ("Supreme Palace") and Hoahao ("Harmony and Nobility"). The first of them adheres to the syncretic doctrine, the canon of which is based on the teachings of Buddha, Christ, Confucius, Victor Hugo, Leo Tolstoy, etc. The symbol of the Kaodai sect is the so-called. "Heavenly Eye", and it is headed by its own "dad" who lives in Teynin province, in the western part of the Mekong Delta. The second syncretic organization, hoahao, adheres to a combination of the ideas of Buddhism, Taoism and a number of other religious movements. In the 1940s and early 1950s, both sects laid claim to territorial spheres of influence and maintained their own militia forces. However, in the mid-1950s, using American financial and military support, Ngo Dinh Diem managed to undermine their military and political positions. In the 1990s, there were still approximately 1 million supporters of Caodaism in the country and approx. 0.5 million hoahao followers.
The mountain peoples of Vietnam have retained their early primitive beliefs, some of the chams (chams) adhere to Hinduism, the other part - Islam.
In 1998, there were approx. 2 million Catholics. There are few Protestants in Vietnam, mainly representatives of mountain peoples.
STATE STRUCTURE
Central authorities. According to the 1992 constitution, supreme body State power is a unicameral National Assembly, composed of 450 deputies, who are elected for a five-year term by direct universal suffrage. Since 2002, the National Assembly has 498 members.
The duties of parliamentarians include “appointing, suspending and dismissing” the president, vice president and prime minister (only members of the National Assembly are nominated for these posts), as well as the chairman of the Supreme People's Court and other high officials of the state. The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and directs the National Defense and Security Council. The President has the right to appoint, with the consent of the National Assembly, officials to a number of positions of responsibility, including the posts of President of the Supreme People's Court and Prosecutor General. The term of office of the President is 5 years. The prime minister, in charge of the day-to-day activities of the government, appoints and removes cabinet members, but always with the approval of the National Assembly. The head of government can cancel or suspend the execution of decrees and decisions taken at the level of ministries and departments, and is accountable to the highest legislative body of the country.
President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam since September 1997 - Tran Duc Luong, re-elected for a new term in 2002. Born in 1937, studied geology in the USSR, worked as a metallurgical engineer. From 1981 he was a member of the National Assembly, from 1987 vice-president of Vietnam, in 1996 he was elected to the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam.
Since 1997, the post of head of government has been held by Pham Van Hai. Born in 1933, studied in the USSR, after returning to Vietnam, made a party career. In 1985 he became the head of the People's Committee in Ho Chi Minh City, in 1991 he was elected to the Politburo of the Communist Party. He headed the State Planning Commission and held the post of first deputy head of government. Pham Van Hai is considered a pragmatist and advocate of reform.

Local authorities. Administratively, Vietnam consists of 61 provinces, one special district and four cities of central subordination: Hanoi, Haiphong, Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh City (the former Saigon, merged with the "upper city" Cholon). In these cities and provinces, there are people's councils - government bodies elected by the population. Their term of office is 4 years. The provinces are divided into districts, in which, as everywhere in cities and villages (communities), people's councils elected by the population operate. Since 1997, provinces and other administrative-territorial units have been granted the right to engage in foreign trade operations.
Political parties. The Communist Party of Vietnam is the ruling party, created in February 1930 at the unification conference of communist groups that had existed since the 1920s in exile in Hong Kong. Ho Chi Minh became the party leader. In October 1930 it was renamed the Communist Party of Indochina (CPIC). The political program of the CPC provided for the overthrow of the French colonial power, the creation of an independent republic and the development of the "bourgeois-democratic" revolution into a "socialist" one. The First Congress of the CPIK was held in March 1935 in exile in Macau. The communists worked actively in clandestine conditions. From 1941 they began to prepare for an armed uprising. In August 1945, the Communists and the Viet Minh Front, formed under their auspices, organized an armed uprising, seized power and proclaimed the creation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which since 1946 found itself at war with the former colonial metropolis, France. At the II Congress of the KPIK in February 1951, it was transformed into the Workers' Party of Vietnam (PTV). The chairman of the Central Committee was the President of the DRV Ho Chi Minh, who remained in this post until his death in 1969. The PTV program proclaimed the main tasks to be the expulsion of the imperialists, the achievement of independence and unity of Vietnam, the destruction of colonialism and feudalism, and the creation of the "foundations of socialism." After the division of the country into North and South in 1954, the northern part of Vietnam came under the rule of the PTV.
The Third Congress of the PTV in September 1960 proclaimed a course towards "building socialism" and reuniting the country. In the South, the communists operated under the name of the People's Revolutionary Party. After the victory in the war with the United States and the defeat of the government of South Vietnam in 1975, the Vietnamese Communists held the IV Congress in Hanoi in December 1976, renamed the PTV the Communist Party of Vietnam and announced that the country was undergoing a "socialist revolution." Le Duan became the General Secretary of the CPV and remained so until his death in 1986. In 2001, the CPV had 2.4 million members. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) is the only party in the country since the Democratic and Socialist parties ceased to exist in 1988. Other political organizations include the Vietnam Fatherland Front, created in 1955 and incorporated in 1977 into the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (1960– 1977) and the Union of National, Democratic and Peace Forces of South Vietnam (1968-1977). The Vietnamese Fatherland Front also includes the Communist Party, the General Confederation of Workers (created in 1976), the Ho Chi Minh Union of Communist Youth (created in 1931), the Vietnamese Women's Union (created in 1930), and other organizations. The leadership of the executive committees of the Fatherland Front and other mass associations, for example, the General Confederation of Workers, the General Peasant Union and the Women's Union, have the right to attend meetings of people's councils and committees at different levels and express their point of view on issues of local life.
Although the Constitution states that the Vietnamese Communist Party is "the leading force of the state and society," the party itself is limited in its actions "within the framework of the constitution and law." Moreover, partly due to the changes made to the Basic Law, there is an increase in the real rights of the President, the Prime Minister and the National Assembly. As a consequence, and also thanks to institutional innovations, many functions from the center were transferred to legislative and executive bodies in the provinces. According to a joint document of the Ministry of Finance and the CPV Financial Control Committee dated September 1998, the budgets of party organizations at all levels, from the national to the rural level, exceed the total budgets of all state institutions by 1.5-2 times.
Judicial system includes the Supreme People's Court in Hanoi and lower people's courts in the provinces and major cities. The National Assembly may, in special cases, for example, when the interests of national security are affected, create by its decision a special judicial body. The Supreme People's Court oversees the work of the subordinate institutions. Members of national minorities are entitled to use their native language in court. At the state and provincial levels and in the army, there are people's inspectorates, each of which is led by senior prosecutors. They carry out the tasks of monitoring the implementation of the law in government agencies, private organizations, military personnel and civilians. The judge considers cases during the trials together with the council of people's assessors, consisting of 5-9 people. There are over 10 thousand such councils in the country.
Power departments. The data concerning the Vietnamese People's Army and other security forces are highly classified. In November 1998, the National Assembly voted for "transparency" of information in public administration, after which the government developed a detailed program to educate the public about funding the services and departments it runs (it does not apply to the army, internal security agencies and party organizations). The number of military personnel in the country is estimated at approximately 0.5 million, and the number of security personnel at 2 million.
Foreign policy. As of 1998, the SRV was recognized by more than 160 countries of the world. In 1991, relations with China were restored, in July 1995 - with the United States, in the same month Vietnam became a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Within the framework of this organization, Vietnam held a summit meeting in 1998 to discuss the Asian "financial crisis" and other issues. SRV is a member of the UN (since 1977), as well as a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum and the Asia-Pacific Economic Community (APEC), in 1995 signed a cooperation protocol with the European Union. Vietnam is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement.
ECONOMY
After the withdrawal of military units from Cambodia in 1989, Vietnam was able to completely end the regime of "war communism". Back in 1986, the VI Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party changed the country's top leadership and initiated a process officially called "renewal", thanks to which the country entered a period of modernization. The far-reaching reforms outlined at the end of the congress were aimed at eliminating direct government interference in pricing, production and foreign trade.
To accelerate the inflow of funds and revive activity in the private sector, Vietnam has developed legislation concerning preferential taxation of foreign investors, created "export production zones" and stimulated the activities of foreign banks. The formation of a legal framework for a market economy began in the country. After 1990, a number of important laws in the field of civil law were adopted, norms for business activities, the work of firms, etc. were developed. A number of public sector enterprises are being reorganized and gradually privatized. The number of state-owned enterprises decreased from 12,084 in 1991 to about 6,300 in 1995, mainly due to the liquidation of weak enterprises and the merger of a number of related businesses. The program of privatization of public sector enterprises is being systematically implemented.
The move towards the market has brought impressive results. From 1990 to 1997, the gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 8.9%, while actual investment increased by about 25% per year. In 1995-1997, Vietnam was the leader among the ASEAN countries in terms of economic growth. By 2000, GDP per capita was $ 400. Authorized foreign direct investment, which in 1991 was about $ 2.3 billion, reached $ 31.2 billion in 1997, accounting for 30% of all capital investment. In 1991-1998, there was a rapid increase in exports - from 2042 million to 9356 million dollars, or 27% per year, and imports - from 2105 million to 11,390 million dollars, or 32% per year. In 1998, the export of goods and services was estimated at 42% of GDP, import - at 47% of GDP. Despite the results achieved, Vietnam is experiencing economic difficulties. Underdeveloped infrastructure and weak economic potential are manifested in a low level of production of the main types of products: electricity - 226 kWh, coal - 117 kg, oil - 118 kg, rolled steel - 8.6 kg, cement - 83.3 kg, sugar - 7 , 8 kg, rice - 352 kg, mineral fertilizers - 12.8 kg and an export volume of US $ 96 per capita (as of 1997). In the same year, the national income per capita was approx. $ 300. The Asian financial crisis of 1998-1999 led to the fact that imports into the country decreased in value by 3%, while exports expanded by 0.9%, and foreign investment declined.
Vietnam's economic growth did not stop by 2002; Thus, in 2002 the GDP was estimated at 183.8 billion US dollars or 2300 US dollars per capita. By sectors, the GDP was divided as follows: the agricultural sector accounted for 24%, industry - 37% and other services - 39%. The population on the verge of poverty in the country is about 37%.
Foreign investment are regulated by a special law of November 12–20, 1996, which establishes four forms of direct investment: equity participation, joint ventures, enterprises with 100% foreign capital, and BOT (build-operate-transfer) and JV (build-transfer) agreements. In 1998 in Vietnam, 2,200 investment projects were carried out with the attraction of capital from 60 countries with an amount of registered investments of $ 32 billion; the volume of realized investments amounted to 12 billion dollars. Direct foreign investments showed dynamic growth in 1991-1997, although in 1997 they were authorized by about 1/3 less than in 1996, and half less than in 1995. At the end of 1997, foreign direct investments were distributed as follows: oil and gas industry - 26%; light industry, primarily food, - 17.6%; heavy industry - 13.4%; hospitality and tourism - 16%; communication - 6.8%; agriculture, forestry and fishing - 3.8%; banking sector - 2.2%; and processing zones for imported raw materials - 1.2%.
Foreign and state investments, directed primarily to industry and the service sector, tend mainly to large cities - Hanoi, Haiphong and Ho Chi Minh City. This aggravates the income imbalance between the leading centers of urbanization and the rest of the country. In 1995, the average per capita income in Hanoi was $ 695 and in Ho Chi Minh City $ 912, and in the country as a whole, approx. $ 220. From 1996 to 1998, the GDP in these cities increased twice as fast as throughout the country, and three times as fast as in rural areas.
Of the $ 31.2 billion in foreign direct investment recorded at the end of 1997, most came from East and Southeast Asia (in $ billion): Singapore - 6.3, Taiwan - 4.3, Japan - 3 , 6, South Korea - 3.1, Hong Kong - 2.7, Malaysia - 1.4, Thailand - 1.1, Philippines - 0.31, Indonesia - 0.244. Among the European powers in this regard, France was the leader, among the American - the United States, with indicators of $ 1.5 billion and $ 1.4 billion, respectively.Income from China amounted to $ 112 million, from Russia - $ 99 million. In 1998 under the influence of the financial crisis, there was a massive exodus of European and American businessmen from Vietnam. In Ho Chi Minh City alone, about 180 representative offices of foreign firms were closed.
Agriculture remains the main branch of the Vietnamese economy, ensuring the country's food security. The village is home to 78% of the population (1997). Already in the 1980s, the indicator of agrarian overpopulation clearly manifested itself: the area of ​​agricultural land per inhabitant was 0.1 hectares: historically, there was an irrational distribution of the population, in which 80% of them live on 20% of the country's territory. In Vietnam there are more than 13 million hectares of virgin and fallow lands, as well as lands located on the slopes of hills and at the foot of the mountains, which, in principle, can be put into economic circulation.
Agriculture is characterized by the presence of three sectors: state (state farms, specializing mainly in the production of industrial crops, raw materials for industry and for export), private sector and the collective sector - cooperatives, production teams.
The share of the private sector in agriculture is estimated at about 90%. Functions of the so-called renovated cooperatives are reduced to the provision of various kinds of services and assistance in production, as well as the organization of various forms of social life in the countryside. In 1994 in the country for each peasant household (on average 4.77 eaters, 2.29 workers) there was only 4143 square meters. m of agricultural land. Labor resources in the village are involved only by 30-50%, i.e. the surplus active population in need of employment is 6–7 million people. The already significant gap in the incomes of townspeople and villagers is widening.
In most cases, primitive implements are used in agriculture. Only 10% of the land area is cultivated by machines. The volume of annual savings on peasant farms is very low (in 1993, on average, it did not exceed 700 thousand dongs per farm, that is, about $ 70). At the end of 1998, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) noted in its report that over the past 10 years, food production in the country has increased by an average of 5.7% per year and the gross grain harvest has increased per capita from 281 kg to 398 kg. The share of family and peasant farms suffering from malnutrition decreased from 30 to 17%, which in absolute terms amounts to 2.4 million farms, of which 300 thousand are classified in the group with chronic starvation and 400 thousand in the group with intermittent starvation. The agricultural sector creates 25% of GDP and 36.3% of all export products. Agriculture, forestry and fisheries employ 68.8% of the country's labor force, and these sectors are represented at about the same level in the “village” economy. In 1995, 27.5 million tons of food were produced in terms of rice, in 1996 - 29 million tons, in 1997 - 31.5 million tons.
The main cultivated land areas are occupied by rice (on the plains - irrigated rice, on the mountain slopes and hills - dry land). Typically two rice crops are harvested per year. The yield in the Hong Ha River delta is 10–15 tons.
In Vietnam, approx. 1,500 varieties of rice - with white, yellowish, reddish-brown (dry rice) and even almost black (it is considered medicinal) grain. There is also the so-called. aromatic and glutinous rice, which is used for the preparation of festive dishes. In addition to rice, minor crops are grown on lands unsuitable for rice growing: groundnuts (peanuts), corn, soybeans, legumes, sweet potatoes, cassava. Agricultural crops are divided into textile and fibrous (cotton, jute, ramie, raw, mulberry), sugary (sugarcane), oil (peanuts, sesame, coconut), stimulating (tobacco, ginger, black pepper, tea, coffee, betel nut), emitting sap and resin (hevea, lacquer wood, pine). The largest areas are allocated for plantations of the rubber tree hevea (about 200 thousand hectares).
Many varieties of bananas, oranges, lemons, mangoes, grapefruits, papaya (melon tree), pineapples, coconuts, breadfruit, lychee and many other exotic fruits are grown from fruit crops. Of the vegetables that are cultivated mainly in winter, in addition to the potatoes, tomatoes, cucumbers, onions imported from the temperate zone, numerous varieties of pumpkins, cabbage, herbs, etc. are cultivated.
Livestock remains a secondary branch of agriculture, but its role is gradually increasing. Cattle (buffaloes and cows) are mainly used as draft power; the dairy farm has appeared only recently. Pigs and poultry (chickens and ducks) are raised for meat.
Fishing for marine fish and crustaceans and collecting seaweed occurs mainly in coastal waters.
Wood is harvested, including valuable species for export, as well as cardamom, star anise, cinnamon, gum, rosin, raw materials for obtaining tannins and dyes.
According to the report of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPV, presented at the end of 1998, 130 agricultural projects were financed in the country on the principles of ODA (“official development assistance” - the provision of subsidies or soft loans by foreign states or international financial organizations for the needs of economic development). Their total cost was estimated at about $ 1.5 billion. The World Bank financed six of them in the amount of $ 465 million, the Asian Development Bank - eight projects worth $ 464 million, the rest was provided by government agencies of different countries. At the end of 1997, foreign direct investment in agriculture, forestry and fisheries reached $ 3.8 billion, of which $ 2.06 billion was invested in 127 projects aimed at organizing the processing of agricultural products, and $ 146 million in 43 projects aimed at stimulating aquaculture.
Industry. Before World War II, when Vietnam's economy was distinctly colonial, specific gravity industry accounted for 10% (1939), by the end of the War of Resistance (1946-1954) it had dropped to 1.5%. In the 1950s-1980s, the foundations were laid for a number of branches of heavy industry, including such as the electric power industry, mechanical engineering (with dozens of large and medium-sized enterprises, hundreds of mechanical and repair shops), metallurgy, chemistry, and the building materials industry. Various branches of light industry were developed. The main industrial centers were formed: Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City - Bien Hoa, Haiphong, Danang, Quang Ninh, Vung Tau, Nam Dinh, Vinh, Vietchi, Thaingguyen, Habak, Thanh Hoa. The leading role in the industry is played by Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, where a significant part of industrial products are produced.
In 1991–1996, the industry practically doubled its output. The average annual increase in production was 13.3%. This rapid growth was due to the successful transition from the system of state administration and subsidizing enterprises to the principles of a market economy, the establishment of broad foreign economic relations. An important role was played by the policy of restructuring and modernizing industry, attracting direct investment from abroad, and introducing new industrial technologies. From 1991 to 1995, the total investment in industry from various sources and economic sectors amounted to approximately $ 4.7 billion, with funds received from the state accounting for 54% of the total investment, foreign investment - 31%, funds invested by themselves enterprises - 3.5%.
With the direct participation of foreign companies, the most important industries were developed: oil and gas, production of cement, steel, electronics, clothing and textiles, processing of agricultural products. Foreign direct investment contributes to the formation and development of such industries as the automotive industry, motorcycle production.
"Zones of export production", "zones of concentrated industrial production" are being created, which have tax and other benefits, as well as other favorable conditions for attracting foreign investment (in Haiphong, Da Nang, Can Tho, Tanthuana, etc.).
If we compare the volume of gross production of 1991–1995 with the corresponding volume for the previous five years, then in terms of electricity production it increased from 35.6 to 57.1 billion kWh, crude oil - from 1.2 to 30.5 million tons , steel - from 393 to 1241 thousand tons, fertilizers - from 2228 to 3340 thousand tons, cement - from 9.8 to 22.5 million tons, paper - from 410 to 713 thousand tons.
Vietnam has significant opportunities for the development of the electric power industry, with large reserves of oil, gas, coal and hydropower resources. The capacity of the generated electricity increased from 2161.7 MW in 1991 to 4360 MW in 1995. The largest hydroelectric complex Hoa Binh with a capacity of 2 million kW, as well as the Thakba, Danim, Vinshon and others hydroelectric power plants, gas turbine complexes in Baria and Thudyk, thermal power plants Falai), as well as hundreds of small hydroelectric power plants. A 500-volt North-South power line has been built, 110-220 V and 350 V power lines have been lengthened by about 2000 km. 442 counties (90% of the total) and 5,450 communities (over 60%) have been electrified.
In recent decades, Vietnam has been conducting exploration, and since the 1980s, oil production. Since 1986, the joint Soviet-Vietnamese enterprise "Sovvietpetro" has been developing an offshore oil field southeast of the port of Vung Tau (in 1996, 8 million tons of oil were produced). The Vietnamese state-owned company Petrovietnam is operating. Vietnam signed several dozen agreements with foreign partners on oil exploration and share sharing, including Shell, Mobile, British Petroleum, Pedko (Republic of Korea), Petronas Carrigali (Malaysia), Japanese JVPC (JVPC). Two new large oil fields on the continental shelf (Rong and Daihung) were commissioned.
The largest coal basin in the country is Quang Ninh, where mining is carried out both in mines and in an open way (for example, in Kaoshon). In 1991-1995, coal production remained at the same level as in 1986-1990 - 28.5 million tons.
The main center of ferrous metallurgy is Thaingguen. Iron ore is mined there, and in the late 1950s, with the help of China, a metallurgical plant was built, which was then destroyed by American aircraft, but rebuilt in 1973. The steel industry increased steel production from 149 thousand tons in 1991 to 550 thousand tons in 1995 : the annual growth rate was 39%. In the same period, due to intensive investments, the production of rolled products increased in Bien Hoa (Nambo) and Thaingguen, as well as in machine-building plants (in Hanoi, Nam Ding, Kamph). In the coming years, it is planned to increase the output of rolled products to 1.25 million tons. Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by the smelting of tin (Tintuk Combine), antimony (in Thaingguen), chromite (in Thanh Hoa), copper, and tungsten.
The foundations of mechanical engineering were laid in the 1950s; in 1958 the Hanoi machine-tool plant was launched. By the mid-1980s, there were already approx. 700 various machine-building enterprises, which employed 130 thousand people. Currently, the production of tools, diesel engines, mechanical pumps, small tractors, tractor-driven agricultural implements, agricultural implements, equipment for processing agricultural products has been established. The company manufactures motor boats, tugs, barges, small cargo ships, trailers and spare parts for locomotives, trucks and cars. There are ship repair enterprises. The largest enterprises in the engineering industry are the Hanoi Mechanical Plant, the Chan Hung Dao Mechanical Plant (in Hanoi), the shipyards in Haiphong, the car repair plant in Zalam (in the vicinity of Hanoi), the Godam Engineering Plant in Thaingguen, a plant for the production and repair of mining equipment in Camphé.
In the industrial area of ​​Ho Chi Minh City - Bien Hoa, where a significant number of enterprises are concentrated, the assembly of diesel generators, low-power tractors, water pumps, mechanical plows, other agricultural equipment, televisions, picture tubes, consumer electronics, sewing machines, bicycles, motorcycles, motor scooters has been established.
The chemical industry largely works to meet the needs of agriculture and is developed mainly in the north of the country in Bakbo. The production of phosphate fertilizers in 1995 was increased to 750 thousand tons; there is a large superphosphate plant in Lamthao. Relatively large enterprises for the production of nitrogen fertilizers (110 thousand tons per year) are located in Bakzyang. The most important raw material base for the production of mineral fertilizers is the Lao Cai apatite mine, where a chemical fertilizer plant was built. Chemical enterprises in the south of the country in the Nambo region produce mainly tires for cars, tractors and bicycles, various rubber products, galvanic cells and batteries, plant protection chemicals, plastics, dyes, varnishes. An oil refining and petrochemical industry is being created.
The large scale of construction in Vietnam stimulates the growth of the building materials industry, primarily the production of cement, which increased from 3.1 million tons in 1991 to 5.8 million tons in 1995. The largest enterprises in the industry are cement plants in Bimshon, Haiphong, Bien Hoa, Hatiene, Hoangthat.
Such branches of light industry as textile, leather and footwear, production of porcelain and faience, glass products, food, etc. have been developed. A well-developed network of rice refineries is of particular importance for Vietnam. In 1995, light industry accounted for 62.5% of all Vietnamese industrial exports.
The handicraft industry plays an important role in the country's economy. There are whole villages of artisans in Vietnam. Many crafts, such as pottery, silk weaving and carpet weaving, bronze casting, jewelry, wood and bone carving, have centuries-old traditions. In the early 1990s, the handicraft industry produced approx. 30 thousand items of consumer goods. A significant share of Vietnamese exports are handicrafts, including products of artistic handicrafts.
Transport. More than 40 thousand km of large and small navigable rivers and canals, over 3 thousand km of the sea coast - this is the length of Vietnam's water communications. In recent years, the sea and river fleet has been replenished with tankers and container ships, although it does not include large ships. A special place is occupied by coastal and river transportation. The main ports are Ho Chi Minh City, Danang, Honggai, Nha Trang, Haiphong, Vung Tau.
Vietnam's land roads are over 310 thousand km long, about a third of them are automobile roads. The construction of land communications in Vietnam is complicated by the need to build many bridges. Roads are paved with stones, and only 10% of them have asphalt pavement, a third of the roads are unpaved. The most important highways: Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi - Haiphong. The truck fleet is approx. 20 thous.
The length of the railway network in the mid-1990s was 2,600 km. These are mainly narrow-gauge roads. Railways with a wider track have a length of approx. 400 km. The main railway line Hanoi - Ho Chi Minh (1,730 km) stretches across the country from north to south. The largest railway junction is Hanoi (60% of freight turnover). 75% of the volume of rail traffic is in the northern part of the country. Railway transport is the weakest industry in the country's transport system, it is characterized by an unsatisfactory state of the tracks, an outdated fleet of locomotives and rolling stock, and slow speeds.
Civil aviation is rapidly developing, serving 15 domestic lines with a length of over 62 thousand km. Since 1980, Vietnam has become a member of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Vietnam Airlines also serves international routes (flights to Moscow, Paris, Bangkok and other capitals). The country has a network of airfields, airports in cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Danang are intended for international communications.
International trade. The volume of exports in 1997 reached 9.1 billion dollars, which is 4 times higher than in 1990. Trade relations are maintained primarily with the states of East Asia and the European Union. In 1986-1990 approx. 40% of Vietnamese exports were sent to the USSR, and approx. 70% of imports. In 1997, goods worth $ 130 million were purchased in Russia, and raw materials and other products were sold to it for $ 330 million.
The most vigorous expansion of foreign sales of footwear, textiles and ready-to-wear, the volume of which increased to $ 1,800 million per year. The share of finished goods in Vietnam's exports is less than 35%. The bulk of exports are rice, corn, coffee, tea, rubber, cashews and other agricultural products, exports of which tripled from 1992 to 1996. At the same time, exports of coal, crude oil and various seafood products more than doubled. In 1996, agricultural, forestry and fisheries products accounted for 45% of all exports, crude oil and coal 20%, and industrial products 35%. Vietnam attracts foreign businessmen, as it is a capacious market that does not impose high requirements on the quality of goods. In imports, the role of means of production increased (up to 33% compared to 22% in 1992) due to intermediate products (56% versus 64%) and consumer goods (11% versus 14%). The deficit of the foreign trade balance remains at a high level (billion dollars): 1995 - 2.7; 1996 3.9; 1997 - 2.5 and 1998 - 2.
In 1998 Vietnam exported 12.2 million tons of crude oil and 3.8 million tons of rice. Due to the sharp drop in world prices for these goods, it was not possible to prevent a decrease in foreign exchange earnings from outside. As a result, the country is experiencing difficulties with the balance of payments, its external debt has approached $ 11 billion.The slowdown in 1998 in the growth rate of such major export goods as footwear, coffee, rubber and cashew nuts, and the simultaneous weakening of foreign investment inflow meant a loss of order for Vietnam. $ 1 billion
Banking system. In addition to the central State Bank of Vietnam, at the end of 1998 there were 4 state commercial banks in the country: the Commercial and Industrial Bank of Vietnam (Inkombank), the Foreign Trade Bank (Vietcombank), the Vietnam Investment and Development Bank and the Vietnam Agricultural and Rural Development Bank. In addition, there are 52 joint-stock banks (the authorized capital of which is formed at the expense of the state, private firms and individuals) and over 10 branches of foreign banks.
The most dynamic trend in the national financial system seems to be the growth of the country's external liabilities. It is believed that up to 70% of direct investment from abroad comes in the form of debt capital, although the exact data have not been published. The debt to the British government agency, the Foreign Aid Office, is slowly decreasing, but in 1993-1998 it still exceeded $ 5 billion, and short-term debt on foreign trade transactions and deferred letters of credit reached $ 2.5 billion in 1998.
The financial crisis in Southeast Asia has exposed many of the negative aspects of the investment climate and the weakness of Vietnam's monetary, financial and banking systems. This is manifested primarily in the fact that the mechanism for regulating the exchange rate and the interest rate have not yet been regulated by the market; the distribution policy of public investment is aimed at supporting weak investment projects; the credit policy of banks is of an administrative nature and does not contribute to the rational distribution of funds; the system of banks remains weak, many of which do not have significant capital and use backward banking technologies; the practice of “knocking out” state funds, etc., remains.
CULTURE
Education and Science. The country has introduced a compulsory five-year primary education. In the academic year 1994/95, the enrollment in schools at all levels reached 14.6 million. However, in the mid-1990s, the illiteracy rate in rural areas was still 20%. According to the 1996 survey, the most disadvantaged situation is observed in the provinces of the Mekong Delta, where they cannot read and write approx. 2.8 million people over the age of 10.
In the 1994/95 academic year, the number of students reached 211 thousand. There are 102 higher and secondary specialized educational institutions in the country.
Vietnam has approx. 300 research institutions. Fundamental research is carried out at the National Center for Scientific Research and the National Center for Social and Human Sciences, which have a network of institutes, departments, laboratories in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Nha Trang, Dalat, Haiphong. In Hanoi, there is the National Library, the Library of the Institute for Scientific Information on Social Sciences, the library of the Institute of Hieroglyphic Writing.
Architecture and fine arts. The early surviving monuments of the visual arts date back to the 1st millennium BC. - for example, large bronze drums dotted with drawings - an ancient model of the Universe. The flourishing of architecture and sculpture on the territory of Vietnam is associated with the formation in the 2nd century. state of Champa. Cham art developed under the influence of India, as well as Cambodia: Hindu and Shaivist temples of the 7-10th centuries. in Chakieu, Michon, Dongziong, the Ponagar temple (in Nha Trang), in the composition of which a round sculpture plays a complementary role in relation to architecture. There are numerous tower-like cham temples (sea otters).
The development of Vietnamese cult architecture is associated with Buddhism and Confucianism. Chinese influence is felt in the temples: the multi-tiered towers of the Huong Chichi temple (Fragrant footprints of Buddha, 11th century), the temple in Binshon (11-14th centuries), the architectural and park ensemble of the Confucian "Temple of Literature" (founded in Hanoi in 1070), a Buddhist temple Chua Mot Kot ("Temple on one column", 1049, rebuilt in 1955) in Hanoi, Buddhist temple complexes of Keo (13-19 centuries), Booth thap (16th century), Thienmu multi-tiered tower ("Heavenly Lady", 1600 ) in Hue, the architectural and park ensemble of the imperial Of the Forbidden City(1808-1833) in Hue, palaces and mausoleums of the 19th century. in the vicinity of this city. The original monuments of wooden architecture are preserved from the 16th-17th centuries. dini - community houses dedicated to the cult of local patron spirits and decorated with carvings. A monument of military architecture is the Hanoi citadel with the Znamenny tower (1812).
Since the end of the 19th century. architectural forms are influenced by Western architecture: urban ensembles, Catholic cathedrals, city theaters in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, building Historical Museum, Presidential Palace, Labor Palace in Hanoi.
Cult sculpture (stone, as well as wood, lacquered and gilded) has a long history. Its peak is considered to be expressive sculptural images of the 18th century. in the Buddhist temple Teifyong (near Hanoi). Posthumous portraits, murals of temples and palaces, landscapes are characteristic of Vietnamese traditional painting. Folk painting reached a noticeable development, as well as the art of decorative miniature mountains (nonbo).
In 1925, the Higher School of Fine Arts was founded in Hanoi, the active development of the experience of European painting and sculpture began, and at the same time, unique painting techniques on lacquer and silk appeared.
Literature. Ancient folklore is represented by a cycle of mythological legends about the Dragon Sovereign Laka (Lak Long Quen), about the birth of the first people from eggs, the heroic tale of Phu Dong, legends about the construction of the Snail Fortress (Koloa), about the warriors of the Ching sisters. A cycle of Myong mythical and epic legends has survived The Birth of Water and the Birth of the Earth... The earliest monuments of Vietnamese literature date back to the 10th – 12th centuries. In the 13-14 centuries. court poetry was developed. Patriotic sentiments are expressed in poetry and rhythmic prose about the struggle against the Mongol invasion in the 13th century: A Call to Warlords(1285) Chan Hong Dao (1232-1300). In the 14th century. a medieval novella was born, which was formed on the basis of the traditions of narrative folklore and historical chronicles: Collection of wonders and mysteries of the land of Viet(1329) Lee Te Xuyen. In the 15th century. poetry in the spoken language develops, the founder of which was Nguyen Chay (1380-1442) ( Collection of poems in the native language). An important role in this process was played by the poet Le Thanh Tong (1442-1497) and the literary association Collection of twenty-eight stars... In the 16-17 centuries. rhythmic prose and philosophical poetry became widespread (Nguyen Binh Khiem, 1491-1586; Phung Khak Khoan, 1528-1613). In the late 17th - early 18th century. a historical and epic poem was created Book of Heavenly South.
Origin in the literature of the 18th century the genre of lyric poem (ngem) opened up opportunities for a deep disclosure of the spiritual world of man (poet Doan-Thi Diem, 1705-1748; poet Nguyen Zya Thieu, 1741-1798). The flowering of a narrative poem (chuen), reflecting private life (Nguyen Huu Hao, d. 1713; Pham Thay, 1777-1813). The synthesis of the traditions of these genres was the poem by Nguyen Zu (1766? –1820) The groaning of a tormented soul(or Kieu) Is an outstanding monument of Vietnamese classical poetry. The two-pronged poems of the poetess Ho Xuan Huong (late 18th - early 19th century) affirmed the value of a person's sensual life. The genres of epic novels appear in prose ( Emperor Le - the unifier of the country), essays (Le Qui Don, Pham Dinh Ho), descriptions of travels, including to Europe ( Book of records of various cases, 1822, Felipe Bigna, 1759-1832?).
From the second half of the 19th century. Vietnamese literature developed in the face of resistance to French expansion. A trend emerged, the founder of which was the poet Nguyen Dinh Thieu (1822-1888), associated with the national liberation movement. As colonial society matures, the satirical tendency intensifies.
In the first quarter of the 20th century. under the influence of European literature, modern prose genres are formed: short story, novel, drama. In the 1930s, the New Poetry movement emerged. The romantic (Nyat Lin, 1906-1963; Khai Hung, 1896-1947; Thah Lam, 1910-1942) and the realistic (Ngo Tat To, 1894-1954; Nguyen Kong Hoan, 1903-1977; Wu Chong Fung, 1912 –1939; Nam Kao, 1915–1951) directions.
In the last decades of the 20th century. the structure of Vietnamese literature is gradually approaching the structure of the literature of the countries of Europe and America. Among modern authors, prose writers Nguyen Hong (1918-1982), To Hoay (b. 1920), Le Luu (b. 1942), Nguyen Man Thuan (b. 1945), poets Xuan Zieu (1916-1985), Te Lan Vien (b. 1919), Te Han (b. 1920), poet and playwright Nguyen Dinh Thi (b. 1924).
Theatre. Ancient theatrical forms in Vietnam are the reed puppet theater and the original water puppet theater, the stage for which is the water surface of a lake, pond or a special pool at a temple. The first mention of a water puppet theater dates back to the early 12th century.
Traditional Vietnamese theater is musical and is represented by two main genres: tuong and teo. Tuong was considered a "high" theatrical genre. There were tuong court troupes, as well as troupes at the houses of feudal lords. Tuong as a synthetic art is based on a combination of music, pantomime, dance, poetry, partly acrobatics and fencing. Make-up, gestures, and a few stage accessories have a symbolic meaning. In the center of the performance, Tuong is a heroic character performing a feat in the name of the motherland and the monarch. Tuong often borrowed plots from novels Three kingdoms, River backwaters and other works of Chinese classics. A noticeable influence on the development of the Tuong in the 17th century. rendered Tao Zyu Ty (1572-1634): tradition attributes to him the popular tuong Sean Howe... In the 19th century. a body was established in charge of tuong troupes throughout the country. Tuong at this time flourished in the work of the playwright Tao Tang (1846-1908); some cycles of performances lasted up to a hundred evenings. In the middle of the 19th century. the folk comedy tuong appeared ( Molluscs, Keeper Ken and Warden Neng).
Another genre of national performing arts is the teo folk theater, which is believed to have its origins in peasant harvest festivals in the Hong Ha delta region. The stage for the theo was the courtyard of the community house; the troupes were amateur or semi-professional. Theo theater has absorbed folk melodies and dances. The orchestra accompanying the performances uses folk musical instruments. Theo performances are based on folklore plots, plots of popular narrative poems: performances Thong san, Kuan Am - Maid of Thi Kinh.
During the renovation of Vietnamese theater in the 1920s, another type of musical theater emerged - kailuong. Popular musical melodies sounded from the stage, interspersed with prosaic and poetic dialogues. The musical part, the orchestra were modernized, the acting became more natural, the scenery, the curtain, the stage appeared. The repertoire was formed not only due to traditional plots, but also performances on modern themes. An example is the work of the playwright Chan Huu Chang (1906-1966).
The theater, in which music did not play a leading role, was created under the influence of French theatrical art in the 1920s. On the development of modern drama in the second half of the 20th century. the Russian theater school and Stanislavsky's system had a noticeable impact.
HISTORY
In the political history of Vietnam, the following main trends can be traced: expansion to the south, geographical regionalism (formed on the basis of administrative divisions or thanks to the informal power acquired by provincial governors) and the desire of the central government to control the actions of local leaders. It should be noted that there were few peaceful periods in the history of Vietnam. The oldest Vietnamese state was Wanglang. He was replaced by Aulak, who united with another state - Namvet (258-111 BC). Its rulers apparently succeeded in 190-180s BC. unite Tonkin (now the northern part of North Vietnam) with the southern Chinese lands. In 111 BC. the army of the Chinese Han Empire overthrew the last monarch of the Vietnamese dynasty, Chieu, probably also of Chinese origin. Tonkin then became the Chinese border province of Jiaozhi. When the new rulers came into conflict with the feudal structures that existed in Vietnam, there was an uprising led by the Chung sisters (39–43 AD), which led to a brief end to Chinese rule. The second stage of Chinese domination began in 44 and was interrupted only after the revolt of prominent representatives of the Li dynasty (544-602). After 939, when the founder of the Ngo dynasty seized power, Vietnam managed to gain independence, albeit with some elements of Chinese suzerainty, which lasted until the period of French colonial rule.
Having achieved independence, the Vietnamese expanded their lands from Tonkin to northern Annam, ousted the Khmers and Chams - farmers, seafarers and merchants. The pretenders to the Vietnamese throne often turned to the Chinese emperors for help, whose invasions, as a rule, ended in failure. Even the Mongol armies of Khubilai, who undertook campaigns in the delta region of the Hong Ha River, were twice defeated (in 1285 and 1288) by the Vietnamese commander Tran Xing Dao. In 1407, a Chinese invasion temporarily restored the power of the Tran dynasty, which ruled from 1225 to 1400. During the war of liberation led by Le Loi, the founder of the Le dynasty, the Chinese imperial forces were finally expelled from Vietnam (1427).
During the Le dynasty (1428-1789), significant progress was made in governance, improving legislation and developing culture. But from the 16th century. Le reigned nominally. Initially, the real power was seized by the powerful Mac family. With the move in 1558 Nguyen Hoanga to the south, the power of the Nguyen clan was formed, and at the end of the 16th century. in the north of the country, the power of the Chin clan is taking shape. Le remained nominally sacred figures until the fall of the dynasty. The Nguyens gradually came to the fore, as they managed to expand their zone of influence, spreading it at the end of the 17th century. to the Mekong valley and then to the whole of Cochin (1757).
The unstable balance of power between the Chinh and Nguyen houses was upset after 1773, when the three Teishon brothers rebelled against both ruling clans, which led to the split of the country. One of the exiled members of the Nguyen family, with the support of the French in the 1790s, emerged victorious from internecine battles and subsequently proclaimed himself Emperor Zia Long (1802). The Nguyen dynasty gradually weakened due to uprisings in the south and north of Vietnam, which facilitated French expansion in the middle of the 19th century. see also French Indochina... France subjugated the three eastern provinces in 1862 and the three western provinces of Cochin in 1867, which in 1874 acquired the status of a colony. The northern (Tonkin) and central (Annam) parts of the country were turned into protectorates. All three regions, together with Laos and Cambodia, formed French Indochina, which the new government sought to consolidate administratively with the help of a common budget and a unified public works program. During the colonial period, a state monopoly on salt, spirits and opium was introduced and the construction of bridges, railways, and motorways was encouraged.
In 1930, at the initiative of the Vietnamese National Party (Viet Nam Quoc Zan Dang), modeled on the Chinese National Party (Kuomintang), an armed Yenbai Uprising broke out in the area northwest of Hanoi. After its suppression, the resistance movement was led by the Indochina Communist Party, formed in 1930 by Ho Chi Minh. Ho Chi Minh, the communists, together with the Trotskyists, expanded their influence and even participated in local government elections in Cochin and Saigon. In 1940-1941, the communists led an unsuccessful uprising in the far south, and the Thai organized unrest in the north.
From July 1941 to August 1945, Japanese troops occupied all of Vietnam. In 1941, Ho Chi Minh founded the Vietnam Independence Struggle League, known as the Viet Minh.
At the end of World War II, detachments of the Kuomintang Chinese entered the northern part of the country, and the British entered the territory of South Vietnam. The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, made Hanoi their base and formed "People's Committees" throughout Vietnam. On September 2, 1945, after the abdication of Emperor Bao Dai (who belonged to the Nguyen dynasty), the Viet Minh who enjoyed the favor of China as a result of the August Revolution announced the creation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) and formed a provisional government, whose chairman was Ho Chi Minh.
In accordance with the Vietnamese-French agreements of 1946, France agreed to recognize the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) as a "free state" with an army and parliament, as part of the Indochina Confederation and the French Union. The first president of the DRV was Ho Chi Minh, who at the same time headed the government as prime minister. At the end of 1946, France and the Viet Minh accused each other of violating the agreements, and on December 19, Viet Minh troops attacked French troops. France sought to win over the local population by placing former Emperor Bao Dai in 1949 as head of a nominally independent government. However, the Viet Minh refused to recognize the new regime and after 1949 consolidated his position with the support of China. In turn, France has received large military and economic aid from the United States since 1951. In the spring of 1954, French troops were surrounded and defeated at Dien Bien Phu. This circumstance and the demand of the international community to stop the aggression hastened the conclusion of a peace agreement at the international conference in Geneva.
The meeting was attended by representatives of the USA, France, Great Britain, USSR, China, Laos, Cambodia and two Vietnamese governments: Bao Dai (South Vietnam) and Viet Minh (North Vietnam). The agreement on the cessation of hostilities between France and Viet Minh, signed in July 1954, provided for the temporary division of the country along the 17th parallel; holding elections in July 1956 necessary for the reunification of North and South Vietnam; the withdrawal of French military units from the North and the prohibition of the buildup of arms in any of the zones; the formation of an international commission to monitor the implementation of the agreement. Thus, the existence of two independent states was recognized - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). North Vietnam retained for the following years the main state structures, which began to form as early as 1946, and proclaimed a line on building socialism under the leadership of the Communist Party and President Ho Chi Minh. In South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem deposed Bao Dai in 1955 and assumed the presidency. Diem managed to cope with the opposition of the military elite, the Caodai and Hoahao sects and the Dai Viet party, and he was re-elected president in 1961. The Saigon authorities tried to discredit the Viet Minh in the eyes of his supporters who remained in the South, but faced active military confrontation in many rural areas, especially in Cochin. In 1960, opponents of the regime created the pro-communist National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF). In the cities, non-communist opposition groups opposed Diem. Buddhists denounced the regime for its discriminatory policies, and several Buddhist monks and nuns even burned themselves to death in protest.
On November 1, 1963, the military overthrew Ngo Din Diem, followed by a series of coups. Unrest among Buddhists, Catholics and students continued until civil rule was restored in late 1964.
In June 1965, General Nguyen Van Thieu assumed the post of head of state, and General Nguyen Cao Ki took the post of prime minister. In 1966, a specially elected Assembly adopted a Constitution approved by the military, which entered into force on April 1, 1967. Presidential elections were held in September. Thieu and Key were voted on as President and Vice President, respectively. Up to a third of the total population living in the territory controlled by the NLFY did not take part in the election campaign.
Meanwhile, the scale of hostilities was expanding. American military advisers had been in the South since 1960, and yet the NLF was close to victory. In 1965, the United States sent army formations to help the Saigon government, launched the first air strikes on the territory of North Vietnam, and intensified its bombardment of the rebellious regions of South Vietnam. NFYUV received military reinforcements from the North, assistance to which was provided by the USSR and China. American military presence temporarily stabilized the situation, but at the beginning of 1968 units of the NLF and North Vietnam conducted military operations in almost all major South Vietnamese cities. In April, peace talks began between representatives of the United States and North Vietnam. Then began a partial evacuation of American troops from the South, the number of which at one time reached 536 thousand people. In the summer of 1969, a People's Revolutionary Administration was established in free democratic elections in the liberated regions of South Vietnam. On June 6-8, at the Congress of People's Representatives, the Republic of South Vietnam (RSV) was proclaimed and the Provisional Revolutionary Government (GRP) was created. Ho Chi Minh passed away in the same year.
From 1969 to 1971, the South Vietnamese army expanded the area under its control. At this time, the United States withdrew its military units from the country, compensating for these steps with air bombing. In 1971, Thieu was re-elected as President of South Vietnam. In the spring and early summer of 1972, the Communists launched a major offensive, which proceeded very successfully until it was stopped by American aviation and counterstrikes by South Vietnamese troops. In response, the United States increased its air raids and carried out extensive mining of North Vietnamese ports and sea and river routes. At the end of the year, the United States began a massive bombardment of the cities of North Vietnam.
On January 27, 1973, the four parties involved in the war signed a peace agreement in Paris that provided for a ceasefire in the South, the recognition of the 17th parallel as a temporary demarcation line and the withdrawal of American troops from the country. The convocation of the National Council and elections were supposed to decide the fate of the South Vietnamese government.
The last American formations left Vietnam in April 1973, but the political clauses of the treaty were never implemented. The Saigon administration tried to conduct an election campaign on its own, which was opposed by the GRP, which demanded the creation of a tripartite council. Moreover, hostilities were not interrupted either. In March 1975, the Saigon army was forced to leave the area of ​​the central plateau (Teingguen), after which it disintegrated. A few weeks later, the armed forces of the GRP and North Vietnam surrounded the southern capital. Thieu resigned on April 21, and on April 30, 1975, the Saigon military units surrendered. see also Vietnam war.
Initially, it seemed that both parts of the country would be able to exist as independent, albeit closely related, state formations. However, the communists were in a hurry with the unification process. In the summer and fall of 1975, they nationalized the banks and large enterprises of the South. In April 1976, general elections were held for the National Assembly of a unified Vietnam. On July 2, 1976, the official reunification of Vietnam and the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place.
During the war, Vietnam was helped by both the USSR and China. In the late 1970s, Vietnam developed close ties with the Soviet Union. The socialist economic transformation in the South has damaged primarily the large Chinese community in Vietnam. Its conflicts with the Vietnamese took the form of interethnic strife and negatively affected relations between Vietnam and China. In addition, China sided with Pol Pot's anti-Vietnamese regime in Cambodia. In December 1978, Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia and by early 1979 occupied most of its territory. In February 1979, an armed conflict broke out on the Vietnamese-Chinese border.
In 1978-1980 at least 750 thousand people left the country (more than half of them are ethnic Chinese). Many returned to their historical homeland by land, and some went on a journey across the South China Sea in boats.
The desire of the Vietnamese authorities to carry out socialist transformations already at the end of the 1970s led to negative consequences. The government in Hanoi concentrated all its efforts on military actions and was entirely dependent on assistance from the USSR. The South Vietnamese economy, based on private entrepreneurship, was artificially fueled by large cash infusions.
In the 1980s, the government moved towards a more pragmatic course, giving additional leeway to local planners, lifting restrictions on the development of commodity relations, and allowing peasants to sell some of their produce on the market. However, in the middle of the decade, huge budget deficits and emissions spawned violent inflation. In 1989, the country adopted a long-term program of radical reforms, including measures to suppress inflation trends, liberalize banking and other legislation, and stimulate the private sector in industry. The adopted state policy of “renewal” (“doy mey”) was confirmed and further developed at the VII (1991) and VIII (1996) congresses of the CPV.
As part of economic reforms, in January 1991 a law was passed on the admission of private enterprises. The new constitution, adopted in 1992, provided for a clearer division of functions between the party and the state, the introduction of a market economy, an increased role for the private sector and the possibility of private land use. Nevertheless, the country's leadership stated that the course towards socialism with the leading role of the Communist Party is preserved and multi-party democracy will not be established. At the Seventh Congress of the Communist Party in June 1991, Do Myoi was elected as the new general secretary, who until then held the post of head of government (in this post he was replaced by Wo Van Kyet). The new appointments reflected the balance of power in the party leadership. Prior to Myoi, a member of the communist movement since 1939 and considered an orthodox believer, Wo Van Kiet was one of the leading advocates of market transformation. In June 1992, the government announced the release of all members, advisers and supporters of the former South Vietnamese regime. In the July 1992 elections for the National Assembly, more candidates were nominated for the first time than there were seats in parliament. Two independent candidates were also admitted to the elections. In July 1993, the National Assembly passed a law that allowed peasants to acquire land for use (the state remained the supreme owner of the land).
Vietnam established ties with the International Monetary Fund and began to cooperate with it in pursuing economic policy. In November 1994, the Vietnamese government and the IMF agreed on a medium-term economic program that provided for real growth in 1994-1996 by 8-8.7% and a decrease in inflation from 10.5 to 7%. In November 1995, Vietnam, international organizations and creditor states agreed to provide this country in 1996 with assistance in the amount of $ 2.3 billion. Negotiations continued to pay off loans issued by Japanese banks in the 1970s. In 1996, Vietnam and Western creditors reached a $ 900 million debt restructuring agreement. In 1997, Hanoi was to receive $ 2.4 billion in aid again.
Economic liberalization in the country was not accompanied by the refusal of the Communist Party from its monopoly position in the state. In November 1995, the Supreme Court sentenced two former high-ranking party leaders to prison terms of 15 and 18 months for "abusing the rights to freedom and democracy to the detriment of national security." Both advocated reform and democratization of the ruling party. The Eighth Congress of the Communist Party in June - July 1996 called for the continuation of cautious reforms while maintaining state control over the economy and the political system.
In 1997, a change of leadership took place in the country. In the July National Assembly elections, all three leading leaders were replaced: Communist Party General Secretary Do Muoi, President Le Duc Anh and Prime Minister Vo Van Kyet. The candidates of the Communist Party received 85% of the votes and took 384 out of 450 seats, 63 seats went to non-partisans, 3 mandates were received by independent ones. In September 1997, Tran Duc Luong became the new president, Pham Van Hai became the head of the government, Le Kha Fieu became the head of the Communist Party in December 1997, and Nong Duc Manh in 2001.
In the late 1990s, the Vietnamese leadership launched an anti-corruption campaign. Within its framework, some of the country's top officials and politicians were removed from their posts, including the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Deputy Prime Minister, etc. The bureaucracy was also blamed for the continuing economic stagnation. Since 1998, 3,000 members have been expelled from the CPV due to corruption, 16,000 have been punished.
In general, over a decade of reforms, Vietnam managed to maintain economic growth at 7.6% per year and double the gross product; from 1985-1986, industrial production increased fivefold, and food production doubled. But market reforms have led to an increase in social disparities and a gap between town and country, to the discontent of the poorest strata of the population and national minorities. In February 2001, the party leadership was alarmed by major unrest among minorities, protesting against the placement of large industrial rubber and coffee plantations on their lands (the program was developed with the participation of the International Monetary Fund).
These problems were discussed at the regular IX Congress of the CPV in April 2001. It was announced that the country is at the stage of a long and difficult "transition to socialism", in which a variety of economic forms and forms of ownership persists. The CPV characterizes the economic system during this period as a "socialist-oriented market economy", emphasizing, at the same time, the priority role of the public sector. In an attempt to alleviate social tensions, the congress approved amendments to the party charter, prohibiting members of the CPV from having their own private business. Corruption in the party and the state, “individualism, opportunism, thirst for power, fame and profit, localism” have come under sharp and emotional attacks. From now on, party leaders at the district level will have to hold office for no more than two consecutive terms, the party intends to strictly observe the principle of leaving office after a certain age, democratic procedures are expanded.
The new General Secretary of the CPV was Nong Duc Manh, 60, the former chairman of the National Assembly. This is the first party leader belonging to the national minority (Thai). His choice is seen as a compromise between the "reformist" and more "conservative" wing of the party.
In the elections to the National Assembly in May 2002, out of 498 seats, the majority were won by the candidates of the Communist Party, 51 - non-partisan, 3 - independent. In 2002 and 2003, despite the ban on strikes, labor conflicts broke out in various sectors of the Vietnamese economy.
In the 1990s, Vietnam's relations with the United States and China improved. In October 1990, the Vietnamese Foreign Minister visited Washington for the first time and held talks on the fate of 1,700 missing American soldiers. In March 1992, the United States and Vietnam reached an agreement that the American side would provide Vietnam with $ 3 million in humanitarian aid annually in exchange for helping to find the missing Americans. In December, the US relaxed the 1964 trade embargo against Hanoi. Finally, in August 1994, the two countries established diplomatic relations. In April 1997, Vietnam pledged to pay the US $ 145 million in debts to the former South Vietnamese government. In June 1997, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright visited Hanoi, and in March 2000 - US Secretary of Defense, who officially apologized for the role of the United States during the Vietnam War, which killed almost 3 million Vietnamese and 58 thousand American soldiers. In 2000, US President Clinton visited Vietnam, which gave a new impetus to relations between the two states.
In the fall of 1990, for the first time since the freeze of diplomatic relations between Vietnam and China in 1979, the two countries signed an agreement on citizens' travel in Beijing. In November 1991, China and Vietnam agreed to formally normalize relations, and in February 1992, the Chinese foreign minister toured Hanoi. In November - December of the same year, the visit of the Chinese Premier Li Peng followed. He discussed with the Vietnamese leaders controversial territorial issues, the situation in Cambodia, and also signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of economy, science, technology and culture. Chinese President Jiang Zemin agreed in November 1994 to expand economic ties between the two countries. In turn, the leader of the Vietnamese Communist Party, Do Myoi, visited Beijing at the end of 1995 and continued negotiations on border disputes.
Vietnam's relations with Asian as well as Western countries developed. In 1995 Vietnam was admitted to ASEAN. In February 1993, French President François Mitterrand became the first head western state who have visited Hanoi since 1954. He signed seven cooperation agreements and promised to double the financial aid to 360 million francs. In July 1995, Vietnam and the European Union entered into a trade and cooperation agreement.
In June 2006, Nguyen Minh Chiet, the chairman of the branch of the "Communist Party" in Ho Chi Minh City, became president of the country. 94% of the deputies of the National Assembly voted for his candidacy.
LITERATURE
Mazaev A.G. Agrarian reform in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam... M., 1959
Friedland V.M. Nature of North Vietnam... M., 1961
Rastorguev V.S. Finance and Credit of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam... M., 1965
History of Vietnam in modern times(1917–1965 ). M., 1970
Anosova L.A. Industry of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam... M., 1973
Nikulin N.I. Vietnamese literature. From the Middle Ages to Modern Times. X-XIX centuries M., 1977
New history of Vietnam... M., 1980
Nguyen Phi Hoan. Vietnamese art. Essays on the History of Fine Arts... M., 1982
Vietnam history... M., 1983
Recent history of Vietnam... M., 1984
Isaev M.P., Chernyshev A.S. History of Soviet-Vietnamese relations 1917-1985. M., 1986
Deopik D.V. Vietnam history, part 1.M., 1986
Voronin A.S., Ognetov I.A. Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Directory. M., 1987
Isaev M.P., Pivovarov Ya.N. Sketch of Agrarian Relations in Vietnam... M., 1987
Anosova L.A. Vietnam on the threshold of the XXI century., h. 1–2. M., 1993
Hu Quoc Wee, Trigubenko M.E., Anosova L.A. ... Directory. M., 1993
P.V. Pozner The history of Vietnam from the era of antiquity and the early Middle Ages to the X century. AD... M., 1994
Novakova O.V., Tsvetov P.Yu. Vietnam history, part 2.M., 1995
Reform and renewal of the economy in Vietnam... M., 1996

Encyclopedia Around the World. 2008 .

VIETNAM

SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
State in Southeast Asia. In the north it borders on China, in the west - on Cambodia and Laos. In the east and south it is washed by the South China Sea. The area of ​​the country is 329707 km2. Vietnam occupies the easternmost part of the Indochina Peninsula. The country can be divided into four main physical and geographical regions. In the north is the mountainous part of the Yunnan Highlands, where the highest point of the country is located - Mount Fan Si-Pan (3143 m). To the east of the mountainous region lies the Hongha (Red) River Delta. Further south are the Annam Mountains, which occupy the central part of Vietnam. The fourth region in the very south of the country is the Mekong Delta. Hongha (Red) and Mekong are the main rivers of the country. Both flow into the South China Sea.
The population of the country (as of 1998) is about 76,236,200 people, the average population density is about 231 people per km2. Ethnic groups: Vietnamese - 88%, Chinese - 2%, Muong, Thais, Meo, Khmer, Man, Cham. Language: Vietnamese (state), Chinese, Khmer, Cham, there is also French, English and Russian. Religion: Buddhism - 55%, Taoism - 12%, Catholicism - 10%, Islam, Protestantism, paganism - 23%. The capital is Hanoi. Largest cities: Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon) (3,555,000 people), Hanoi (1,247,000 people), Haiphong (449,747 people), Danang (369,743 people), Hue (260,500 people). The state structure is the communist regime. The head of state is President Le Duc Anh (in office since September 23, 1992). The head of government is Prime Minister Vo Van Kyet (in office since August 8, 1991). The monetary unit is the new dong. Life expectancy (1998): 63 years for men, 67 years for women. The birth rate (per 1000 people) is 21.6. The mortality rate (per 1000 people) is 6.7.
The first state formation on the territory of modern Vietnam was the kingdom of 0-Lak, which existed in the 1st millennium BC. In 221 BC. North Vietnam became part of the Chinese Empire, in which it, despite attempts to secede from the empire, remained until 939 AD. At the beginning of the 11th century, the first of the great Vietnamese dynasties, the Li, was founded, who ruled Vietnam for over 200 years. However, despite its independence, the state institutions of Vietnam were based on the Chinese model, Confucianism was considered the main religion. The country was like a "little dragon" in the shadow of a huge empire in the north. In the middle of the 19th century, during the reign of the Nguyen dynasty, France began to show interest in Vietnam and in 1858 began the actual conquest of Vietnam, and by 1884 most of the country had become a French protectorate. After the end of World War II, a liberation war broke out in Vietnam, which lasted until 1954, when the French army suffered a crushing defeat at Dien Bien Phu. According to the Geneva Agreement, Vietnam was divided into two states (along the 17th parallel). In the north, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was formed, officially proclaimed on December 31, 1959. In the south of Vietnam, the Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed on October 26, 1955. Almost immediately after the formation of the two states, an armed conflict began, which in 1965 resulted in a large-scale war with the participation of the United States army (the number of soldiers in April 1969 reached 543,400 people). The ceasefire was signed on January 27, 1973, but the agreement never entered into force, and in early 1975 Saigon fell. The political unification of the two Vietnam took place in 1976. In the early 90s, economic and partly political reforms began in Vietnam. In 1995, Vietnam and the United States resumed diplomatic relations. The country is a member of the UN, IMF, UNESCO, WHO.
The country's climate is not the same in different regions. In the north, it is subtropical with dry and mild winters and humid hot summers. In the central and southeastern regions, the climate is tropical monsoon with high levels of humidity and high temperatures. In the southwest, the climate is similar to that of the north of the country, but the average temperatures are higher. The vegetation of Vietnam is very rich. Mixed tropical forests are home to pine, broadleaf trees, bamboo, and numerous lianas. In the river deltas there are dense mangroves. The fauna is represented by elephants, deer, bears, tigers, leopards. Among small mammals, the hare, squirrel, and monkey are especially widespread. Birds and reptiles are widely represented. Among the latter, crocodiles, snakes and lizards are especially common.
Among the museums in Vietnam, the Art Museum in Hanoi stands out, where, in particular, "household items and costumes of all 60 ethnic groups living in Vietnam are exhibited. In addition, in Hanoi, there is the Turtle Pagoda; Hoan Kiem Lake; Ho Chi Minh City Mausoleum; Tran Quoc Pagoda. ; small zoo; Army Museum. In Hue - the palace of the emperors of Annam and the tombs of the emperors. In Da Nang - the Museum of relics of the Cham people. In Nhatrang there are four Buddhist temples of the 7th-12th centuries. In Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) - Notre Dame Cathedral (1883); City Hall (XIX century); Giak Lam Pagoda (1744); Jadeite Emperor Pagoda (1909); Mariamman Hindu Temple (XIX century); Ben-Market Tang; Botanical Garden; several museums - Museum of the Revolution, Art Museum, Ho Chi Minh Museum, Museum of the War Crimes of the American and Chinese Armies during the 1965-1975 and 1979 wars.

Encyclopedia: cities and countries. 2008 .

Vietnam is an agrarian country with a developing industry. Most of the industrial enterprises were built with the assistance of the USSR. They produce most of the electricity, coal, and engineering products. In the south of the country there are enterprises built with the help of foreign capital - for the assembly of electronic equipment, bicycles, motorcycles. There are large oil reserves on the country's continental shelf. Crude oil exports account for the bulk of foreign exchange earnings. Agriculture employs 75% of the workforce. The main crop is rice. In terms of its exports, Vietnam is in 4th place in the world. Other export crops are coffee, tea. The monetary unit is the dong.

History
In the 2nd century BC. NS. most of the territory was conquered by China. In the 10th century A.D. NS. the independent state of Daiwiet separated from China with its capital in Hanoi. At the end of the 18th century, after a series of uprisings, power passed to a new dynasty, which expelled Catholic missionaries and carried out mass executions of Christians. Under this pretext in 1858-1884. the French invaded the country, Vietnam became a French protectorate. The August Revolution of 1945 ended with the proclamation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). Ho Chi Minh became president and prime minister. After unsuccessful hostilities, France concluded the 1954 Geneva Agreements, according to which Vietnam was divided into two parts along the 17 ° parallel. The United States assumed the support of the pro-Western government of South Vietnam. In 1964-1965. The United States launched an air war against the DRV, and in 1965 brought troops into South Vietnam. In January 1973, the Paris Agreement was signed to end the war and restore peace in Vietnam. In July 1976, the state reunification of Vietnam was completed. In 1992, a new constitution was adopted. In the 1990s. economic reforms began, the transition from an administrative-command system to a market one. On January 11, 2007, Vietnam became the 150th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). National holiday - September 2 (Day of the proclamation of the DRV).
National cuisine
Vietnamese national cuisine is distinguished by its variety. Its main feature is the minimum fat content in food. Main ingredients: rice, noodles, vegetables, seafood, meat, as well as all kinds of sauces and seasonings (mint leaves, coriander, basil, ginger). One of the original dishes is bamboo shoots. In the northern part of the country, noodle soup with a unique taste, as well as seafood and grilled meat dishes, are especially popular. In South Vietnam, you can taste crabs, lobsters, squid and various types of fish. Central Vietnam is famous for its intricate dishes prepared according to ancient recipes. The Vietnamese attach great importance to the freshness of food.

Cyril and Methodius Encyclopedia of Tourism. 2008 .

Synonyms:

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Viet Nam), Socialist Republic of Vietnam, a socialist state in Southeast Asia, on the Indochina Peninsula. The oldest monuments of artistic culture in Vietnam (bronze drums) belong to the Dong Shon ... Art encyclopedia

Vietnam's nature thanks to its geographic location is very diverse. The country lies entirely south of the Tropic of Cancer. The climate is subtropical, tropical and subequatorial with wet and dry seasons.
In recent years, the fauna and flora have been subjected to powerful negative influences from humans. This leads to the extinction or complete disappearance of some species of animals and plants, as well as to a decrease in the range of wildlife.

Mekong Delta Game Reserve

Geographical position of Vietnam, relief

The nature of Vietnam is formed by its location in the subtropical and tropical zones, in the monsoon climate zone, varied relief, narrow elongation along the coast of the warm South China Sea.
The coastline is 3260 km long. More than 3/4 of the territory is occupied by mountains, plateaus and plateaus. The relief is complex: from mountains with a height of more than 3 km to plains with a height of 1-3 meters above sea level. There are many rivers. Vietnam also owns islands and archipelagos. Vietnam is separated from neighboring states by mountain ranges.

The Hoang Lien Son ridge stretches from the northern border of Vietnam to the southeast. It forms the watershed of the Hongha (Red) and Da rivers. The highest mountain in Indochina, Fansipan (3143 m), belongs to it. To the west, to the border with Laos, there are lower parallel ridges. The right tributaries of the Hong Ha River crossing the Hoanglien Son ridge have very narrow valleys. In the rainy season, landslides, rockfalls and mudflows often occur.
South of the 20th parallel along the border with Laos and Cambodia stretches the longest mountain range of Vietnam, Truong Son, which means "Long Mountains". It has steep eastern slopes and steeply declining western slopes. The highest point of the ridge, Mount Sailileng (2711 m), is located on the border with Laos. The most extensive plateaus of South Truong Son are united under the general name Teingguyen. From these plateaus originate rivers belonging to the Mekong basin or flowing directly into the ocean.

A wild stretch of seafront in central Vietnam

The main plains are located in the Hong Ha and Mekong deltas. All the plains of Vietnam are occupied by rice fields, settlements, industrial zones and roads.

Fauna and flora of nature

Forests grow in mountainous areas up to 700 m above sea level in the north and up to 1300 m in the south. These are subtropical and tropical evergreen forests (jungle), characterized by a variety of flora and fauna. In the jungle, there are many precious woods such as iron, mahogany, brown (lim), black (gu), aromatic woods (sandalwood), bamboos and other species that serve as excellent building materials for furniture and highly artistic products. Many types of medicinal plants grow in the Vietnamese jungle: ginseng, star anise, cinnamon, cardamom and others.

The fauna of Vietnam is quite rich and varied. It is similar to the fauna of other countries in South Asia and Southeast Asia and southern regions of China. The jungle is home to antelopes, tigers and leopards, panthers and wild cats, wild bulls and deer, lemurs and monkeys, as well as various types of bears. There are elephants and rhinos. The population of large mammals is steadily declining. In the early 2010s, it was stated that the last of the Javanese rhinoceros had disappeared.
The forests of Vietnam are inhabited by over 400 species of birds, from peacocks and parrots to pheasants and eagles. There are many snakes, pythons, lizards and other reptiles.

A little more than ten years ago, previously unknown species of animals and fish were discovered in the forests and water bodies of Vietnam. In 1992, scientists stumbled upon the Saola forest cow, the largest mammal discovered in the past 50 years. Then one species of rhinoceros was discovered, which was considered extinct, three species of deer, 63 species of vertebrates living on land, and 45 species of fish.
Now in Vietnam, there are about a hundred tigers (half as many as 10 years ago), 76 wild elephants (in 1980 there were one and a half thousand) and less than ten rhinos. Crocodiles, according to the Ministry of Agriculture of Vietnam, are now gone in the rivers of the country. They are only found in zoos and farms.
Vietnamese tigers belong to the Indo-Chinese species of tigers (Panthera tigris corbetti). Previously, they lived in large numbers in all more or less wooded areas of Vietnam. Poaching has caused a significant drop in the tiger population. Big money is paid for their skins, teeth and bones in big cities.

One of the least affected by human activities is Dak Lak province. Here, wild elephants often ravage the fields of local residents.

Natural plantations of rare plants are decreasing. Recently, 63 such plants have been found in the central province of Thua Thien-Hue, among them choc mau (Salacia chinensis), a vine whose substances limit the multiplication of cancer cells in the body. Choc mau also grows in the Bach Ma National Park and on the Kim Phung Mountain in the same province.

National parks

National parks of Vietnam: Lake Babe (Bac Kan province), Bavi (Hatay province), Tam Dao (Vinh Phuc province), Kuk Phuong (Ninh Binh province), Benen (Thanh Hoa province), Bak Ma (Thua Thien Hue province), Yokdon (Dak Lak province), Chamtim (Dong Thap province), Con Dao Islands, Hoang Lien Son (Lao Cai province).
In the province of Nge An, there is a large Western Nghean Biosphere Reserve covering 1.3 million hectares adjacent to Laos. Other biosphere reserves: Can Zio mangrove forest near Ho Chi Minh City, national park Kat Tien (Dong Nai province), Kat Ba archipelago, Red River delta, Kien Ziang nature reserve.
There are several private tiger farms in Binh Duong province, with dozens of these rare animals each.

VIETNAM (Viet-Nam), the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cong hoa Хa hoi chu nghia Viet-Nam), is a state in the southeast, in the east of the Indochina peninsula (15% of the area of ​​the peninsula). Bordered in the north with, in the west with and. In the south and east it is washed by the waters of the South China Sea and the Bakbo and Siam bays. The area is 332.6 thousand km 2. The territory of Vietnam also includes a significant number of islands located in the South China Sea: Phu Quoc (568 km 2), Cat Ba (180 km 2), Con Dao (56 km 2). Population 54 million (1981, estimate). The capital is Hanoi (2.57 million inhabitants in 1979). Administratively, Vietnam consists of 36 provinces, 3 cities of central subordination (Hanoi, Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City) and one region of special purpose (Vung Tau-Con Dao). The largest city- Ho Chi Minh City (3.4 million inhabitants in 1979). The official language is Vietnamese. The monetary unit is the dong. Vietnam is a member (since 1978).

General characteristics of the economy... Industry and handicraft production in Vietnam accounts for more than 50% of the total volume of gross industrial and agricultural production (1980). The country has significant mineral resources for industrialization. The main industries are metalworking and mechanical engineering, mining, power generation, woodworking, and textile production. The handicraft industry is well developed. In 1981, 3845 million kWh of electricity were produced. Import is of great importance for the development of the national economy of the country, contributing to the technical re-equipment of sectors of the economy. Due to imports, Vietnam satisfies its needs in many types of machinery and equipment, in oil products, rolled ferrous and non-ferrous metals, etc. The length of railways is about 1,000 km (under reconstruction), highways 40.5 thousand km, river navigable routes 6 thousand km ( 1970). The largest ports are: Ho Chi Minh City, Haiphong, Da Nang, Hongai, Kamfa.

Nature... The territory of Vietnam is almost entirely located within the tropical belt of the Northern Hemisphere. The shores are mostly low, slightly indented. Most of Vietnam's territory is occupied by mountain ranges (the maximum absolute elevation is 3143 m - Fanshipan), and only in the extreme north and south there are low-lying areas confined to the deltas of large rivers - Hong Ha (Red) and Mekong. The climate is monsoon subequatorial, with hot in the south (25.6 ° C) and cool in the north (16.6 ° C) in winter and a pronounced maximum precipitation during the wet monsoon. Precipitation is over 1500 mm per year (in some places - over 3000 mm). All rivers in Vietnam belong to the South China Sea basin. They allow to satisfy the need for water in agriculture and industry, contribute to the development of water transport, and contain huge hydropower resources. The country's largest rivers are Hongha, Da, Ma and Mekong. More than 30% of the country's area is occupied by natural tropical forests. There are woodlands and savannahs. The forests of Vietnam are not homogeneous, mixed, with valuable species.

Geological structure... Vietnam is located at the junction of and. Separate parts of the territory of Vietnam are associated with the following large regional tectonic units - the Catasian Caledonian, mobile part, the East Indochina (North Vietnamese) fold system, the Indo-Indian median massif, and the West Indochina (Lao-Malay) fold system. The peculiarities of the geological structure make it possible to subdivide the territory of the republic into four regions.

Northeastern Bakbo belongs to the mobile margin of the South China Platform and the southwestern end of the Catasian system. The formations of the ancient basement of the platform (, granitoids) are overlapped by the Upper Proterozoic and Paleozoic. Along the northeastern coast of Bakbo Bay (southwest of the Catasian system), there are terrigenous-effusive deposits, and they are strongly collapsed with the formation of a folded complex of the lower. volcanic-sedimentary and terrigenous strata fill separate and. Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic acidic and basic composition associated with. In this part of the country, deposits have been established in Late Triassic, titanomagnetite ores associated with gabbroids - in Mesozoic intrusions, hydrothermal and - in Permian-Triassic granitoids and felsic volcanics, - in sediments, and - with granites of the Cretaceous-Paleogene age and in modern and others and are installed in Hanoi, and the water area of ​​Bakbo Bay is potentially promising for and.

Northwestern Bakbo and northern Chungbo are the Early Hercynian and Indo-Sinian (Late Triassic) geosynclinal-fold system. Northern Chungbo is composed of terrigenous and volcanogenic formations of the Lower Paleozoic and Devonian with large concordant granitoids; Upper Paleozoic carbonate deposits form covers. Northwestern Bakbo is characterized by special Permian-Triassic ophiolite formations, transformed into a block-fold zone of the Indo-Sinia complex. Here chromites are found in -, formed due to the destruction of serpentinized harzburgites; ore deposits associated with differentiated and gabbro-norite intrusions; deposits of ores of rare earth elements, and - with alkaline intrusions of the Late Cretaceous, Paleogene; hydrothermal-metasomatic deposits of copper ores and rare earth elements, deposits of pyrite ores - with volcanogenic formations. In northern Chungbo, ore deposits have been established in skarns of Mesozoic granitoids. Ore occurrences and deposits associated with Triassic and Cretaceous-Paleogene granitoids, hydrothermal deposits of lead and zinc ores in and near fault zones, etc. have been uncovered here.

Central Chungbo is occupied by the Indo-Sinian median massif (with the protrusion of the Kontum plateau). (Proterozoic) crystalline formations of the basement of the massif in some areas are overlapped by strata. Cenozoic plateau basalts are widespread here. Among the intrusions, Paleozoic and Mesozoic granitoids prevail. In this area, there are deposits in crystalline basement shales, laterite bauxite in basalts, gold in quartz rocks among Precambrian rocks, ore occurrences of lead, zinc, etc.

The region of southern Chungbo - Nambo belongs to the West Indochina geosynclinal-fold system, which is composed of a complex of folded Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanogenic-sedimentary formations with widespread Early and Late Mesozoic granitoids. Large areas occupied by Cenozoic loose sediments of the trough of the Mekong deltas and covers of plateau basalts. Here ore occurrences of tin have been established, and in connection with the Late Mesozoic granitoids, bauxite deposits in the weathering crusts of basalts, etc. On the adjacent South China Sea in the Neogene troughs, oil and gas have been found.

Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology... In the mountain structures of Vietnam, porous and karst fresh water that feed numerous springs. There are three main aquifers: Quaternary sedimentary, Carboniferous-Triassic carbonate-sedimentary and Neogene-Quaternary basaltic. Hundreds of springs and hydrothermal waters with a temperature of 36-80 ° C, sometimes 95-100 ° C have been identified. For some regions, the conditions for the exploitation of these waters are difficult (small, deep bedding of waters).

In engineering and geological terms, the territory of Vietnam is divided into mountainous, hilly and flat areas. In the mountainous and hilly regions, landslide processes, avalanches, mudflows and karst phenomena are observed, in the plain - phenomena of subsidence, washout of sediments, waterlogging and erosion of river banks; outlets of high-pressure waters are noted in places, which penetrate into the basins of structures and into.

The country's territory lies on a relatively stable substrate. However, sometimes it happens up to 6-7 points, very rarely up to 8-9 points.

Minerals... Vietnam is one of the richest countries in terms of reserves and diversity of the Indochina Peninsula. Deposits of over 60 types of valuable minerals have been discovered: oil and gas, coal, iron ores, manganese, tin, copper, lead, zinc, rare earth elements, bauxite, various building materials, etc., which is an important prerequisite for creating a reliable raw material. bases for the development of industry (see map).

Oil and gas deposits have been identified within the shelf of South Vietnam, in the Neogene deposits of the Hanoi depression in the north of the country. Both areas are located in the vast Cenozoic trough of the South China Sea, which is very promising, but little studied.

Most of the coal deposits are located in the north-east of the country. Coal grades - from brown to anthracite. The main coal basin is the Quang Ninh (Hongai) Late Triassic age (northeastern Vietnam), where the section of the coal strata with a total thickness of 1500-1700 m contains about 30 with an average thickness of 2.7-10.7 m. Geological reserves reach 5-6 billion tons , incl. explored 2 billion tons. Main: Kokshau (reserves of 500 million tons), Deonay (250), Khatu (350), Kaoshon (400), Maoxe (381), Wangzyang (about 400). Neogene coals are represented by brown varieties and are located mainly in the Hanoi depression. The productive part of the coal-bearing strata with a thickness of more than 300 m contains about 40 coal seams with an average thickness of 1-2 m. The estimated reserves are estimated at several tens of billion tons. Engineering and hydrogeological conditions for the development of coal are complex. Deposits are found in Quaternary sediments.

Ferrous metal ores... Numerous manifestations and deposits of various genetic types are known, which are located mainly in the north-east and west of the country. The total ore reserves are estimated at 1 billion tons. Skarn deposits are of the greatest industrial importance; the largest of them is Thakhkhe (Ngetin province), the reserves of which are estimated at 500-600 million tons of ore with an Fe content of over 60%. Chromium ores are found in placers of Quaternary deposits and in bedrock; their explored reserves are tens of million tons. All of them are concentrated in the Thanh Hoa region. Small deposits of manganese ores (Toktak, Langbai) and titanium are known.

Non-ferrous metal ores... are represented by bauxite of two genetic types. In northeastern Vietnam, sedimentary bauxites are known (deposits Tapna, Dongdang, Mameo), occurring on carbonate rocks of the Late Permian age. The main ore-forming minerals - and with a content of Al 2 O 3 40-56%, SiO 2 1-12%. The reserves reach 100 million tons of ore. In the south of Vietnam, lateritic bauxites are found in the weathering crusts of Neogene-Quaternary basalts (Vank Hoa, Daknong, Buna, Baolok). The main ore - with Al 2 O 3 content 35-49%, SiO 2 1-8%, the thickness of the deposits varies from 2 to 10 m. The predicted reserves of lateritic bauxites are estimated at several billion tons. with, and hydrothermal-metasomatic copper-sulfide deposits with, rare earth elements, etc. Explored copper reserves exceed 1 million tons. At the Xinkuen deposit (northeastern Vietnam), the explored copper reserves amount to 550 thousand tons with an average Cu content of 1.07%. The deposits are located within three tin ore regions in northeastern Bakbo and northern Chungbo. The predicted reserves of tin ores reach several hundred thousand tons. The main reserves are associated with placer deposits. The explored reserves of placers amount to several tens of thousands of tons of tin. The content in placers ranges from 200 to 2000 g / m 3, averaging 400-500 g / m 3. The bedrock ores have been studied extremely poorly. Ores of rare earth elements (mainly of the cerium group) have predicted reserves of several million tons (for the amount of oxides of rare earth elements) with the content of these oxides from 2 to 10%. There are known deposits and manifestations of lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, gold, molybdenum, tungsten, radioactive elements, etc., among which only some deposits of lead, zinc and antimony are explored. In the Tödyen and Langhit deposits, the total reserves of lead and zinc reach 569 thousand tons, the Langbai deposit has antimony reserves of 60 thousand tons.

Mining and chemical raw materials... Deposits are of the greatest importance. Apatite deposits are concentrated in the development zone of Late Precambrian - Early Cambrian deposits along the right bank of the Hongha River (Lao Cai deposits). The thickness of apatite beds varies from several meters to tens of meters. The content of Р 2 О 5 ranges from 8 to 41%. Apatite reserves reach several billion tons, of which about 400 million tons are explored.

Non-metallic industrial raw materials and non-metallic building materials. Deposits of pyrophyllite, graphite, quartz sands have been explored in Vietnam. Kaolin deposits are represented by two main genetic types: weathering and hydrothermal (kaolinite and pyrophyllite). The reserves of kaolin (weathering deposits) are estimated at 27 million tons. The reserves of the Tanmai pyrophyllite deposit (Quang Ninh province) are estimated at 5 million tons. There are graphite deposits in the regions of Namthi, Maya, Nyong Khuong. They are associated with crystalline schists and processed by hydrothermal-metasomatic processes. The explored reserves of the three deposits are 5 million tons, the probable reserves are 10-15 million tons with the ore grade from 8 to 35%.

Gemstones in Vietnam are found in various formations: in basalts (,), (garnet, corundum, sphene), pegmatites and hydrothermal veins (, smoky, etc.). The most frequent are rich accumulations (predicted reserves are estimated in hundreds of kilograms).

Mining... Historical sketch. Metals have been used in Vietnam since the end of the 2nd millennium BC. (Don Shon culture). Periodic primitive mining of ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, tin and other metals was carried out until the end of the 9th century. AD In the 10th century. Intensive development of mining began, caused by the increased demand for metals for the production of tools, weapons, coins, etc. In the 14th century. mining of zinc ores increases (since 1323 it is used for making coins), in the 16-18 centuries. - red copper (about 450 tons of metal were produced annually at the Tulong deposit). In 1839, coal mining began in the country. In the 1st half of the 20th century. its annual volume averaged 1.5 million tons. For example, in 1913-40, about 40 million tons of coal were mined (mainly at the deposits of the Quang Ninh basin). In the same period, 337 thousand tons of zinc ores were obtained (in terms of metal) (at the Tödyen, Langhit deposits, etc.), 40 thousand tons of tin, 360 thousand tons of iron and manganese ores, 280 thousand tons of phosphates, as well as 5 thousand tons tungsten ores (in terms of oxides) are deposits of Tintuk, Piaoak, and others. High rates of development of the mining industry were noted in 1928-29. The export of mineral raw materials during this period amounted to 0.5% of its total volume in Indochina.

general characteristics... The mining industry accounts for 5% of GNP (1982). Deposits for 30 types of minerals are being developed on a relatively small scale.

The most important in the structure of the mining industry is the extraction of coal, iron ores, tin, chromium, apatite, etc. (table). The country pays great attention to the development of the industry based on the reconstruction and construction of new mining and processing enterprises, equipping them with modern mining equipment. (For the location of mountain objects, see the map.)

Coal mining in the country (s) is carried out on a small scale - in 1980, 5.3 million tons of coal were obtained. The level of production is explained by the fact that the coal industry is in the stage of recovery (since 1973). The main coal mining region is Quang Ninh province. Enterprises are mainly engaged in the development of three coal associations: Hongai in the Quang Ninh province - the Deonai, Khatu, Kokshau, Thongnyang, Halam, Kaoshon deposits; Wangbiski in the same province - Wangzyang, Maoxe; Bakthai - Hapyoanui-Hong (in Bakthai province), Nazyong (Lang Son) deposits. The production capacity of the largest is about 0.5-1 million tons per year, - up to 1 million tons. The products of enterprises are of high quality - the heat of combustion of anthracites is 33.6-35.7 MJ / kg, 14.5-16%, the S content is 0.4%. Technical re-equipment of the industry is being carried out in the country with the assistance of the CMEA member countries. Dump trucks have also begun to be used in open pits, excavation and other mining equipment are being introduced in mines. A further increase in the volume of coal production is envisaged. A project is being developed for the reconstruction of the "Maoxe" mine, bringing its annual production capacity to 2.1 million tons.

Iron ore is mined in the Bakthai province. Since 1963, the Chaikau deposit has been developed, where 360 ​​thousand tons of ore are produced (1979). Raw materials go to the metallurgical plant in Thaingguen. Chromium ores are mined in the Thanh Hoa province at the Kodin deposit, which has been in operation since 1956. Of the deposits of non-ferrous metal ores, only tin and antimony are mined. Non-ferrous metallurgy is a new industry in Vietnam. The first enterprises for the extraction and production of tin and antimony were built in the 1950-1970s.

The largest mining enterprises are the Tintuk and Shon Duong mines. The first was built and put into operation in 1955, in the 60s and 70s it was reconstructed with an increase in the annual production capacity to 900 tons of tin concentrate per year. produces about 200 tons of tin concentrate The main mining equipment is excavators and dump trucks. For ore processing, gravity separation is used.

Development of apatite deposits in the country began in 1940 at the Lao Cai field, then production was suspended; reopened in the 50s at the Kamduong mine. The enterprise was restored and modernized with technical assistance. In 1963, the production of apatite concentrate here reached 925 thousand tons. In the early 80s, the mine was the largest mining enterprise of this kind in South-East Asia... Its concentrate production capacity reached 1 million tons (1982). The products contain 35% Р 2 О 5.

During World War II (1939-45), the development of phosphorite deposits also began in the country. Minerals were extracted manually (from a depth of about 2 m), crushed and used for the production of fertilizers. Modern developments of phosphate deposits provide raw materials for the large superphosphate plant in Lamthao.

An industry of nonmetallic building materials has been created and is developing in Vietnam (over 500 small enterprises). Development of deposits of limestone, granite, sand, pebbles - open pit. The largest production is in the province of Hanam Ninh (since 1960), Haiphong (since 1970), and others. The quarries are part of the building materials association. The industry provides the industry with the necessary raw materials. On its basis there are large cement plants in Binshon (built with the help of the CCCP), Hoang Thak (with technical assistance from Denmark), as well as the restored and expanded Haiphong and Hatien plants. The total capacity of enterprises for the production of cement is 705 thousand tons (1979).

Mining engineering... In Vietnam, small quantities of percussion drilling machines, screens for sorting coal, equipment for enrichment of coals by gravity and flotation methods, etc. are produced in small quantities. Plants for the production and repair of mining equipment operate in Kampha, Yen Vien and Vin Phu. Mining equipment and vehicles are imported mainly from socialist countries, and primarily from the CCCP.

Subsoil protection and land reclamation... The importance of the problem of environmental protection was reflected in the first Constitution of the DRV (1946). In the early 1980s, organizations for the protection of the environment and mineral resources were active in Vietnam. State control is exercised by the Mineral Resources Conservation Directorate under the General Geological Directorate.

Geological Survey... Scientific institutions. Personnel training. Seal. Exploration and development of mineral deposits in Vietnam are under the jurisdiction of the General Geological Administration, the Ministry of Mining and Coal Industry, and the Ministry of Mechanical Engineering and Metallurgy. Scientific research in the field of geology and mining is carried out at the Institute of Geosciences (National Center for Scientific Research of Vietnam, established in 1976), the Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources (Main Geological Department, 1976), the Institute of Nonferrous Metallurgy and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information on Mechanical Engineering and metallurgy (Ministry of Mechanical Engineering and Metallurgy, 1967), the Institute for Planning and Designing the Development of Coal Deposits and the Study of Coals (Ministry of Mining and Coal Industry, 1967), the Institute of Oil and Gas (1980). Training in mining and geological specialties is carried out by the Hanoi Mining and Geological Institute (1966), the Geological Faculties of the universities in Hanoi (since 1967), Ho Chi Minh City (until 1975) and the Polytechnic Institute in Ho Chi Minh City (since 1977), Geological and Technical Schools (since 1962) ...