Russian explorers of the 18th and 19th centuries. Forgotten Russian travelers of the 19th century
Chapter No. 8
Lecture No. 36
Russian culture in the 19th century
First half of the 19th century
Education and science
At the very beginning of the 19th century in Russia a system of higher, middle and primary education. Conducted in 1803 year, reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial city, and a college in every district city. Parochial schools were also created in rural areas; children of different classes were accepted into them. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.
IN 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (among them A.S. Pushkin),
The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Dorpat (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilna (1804), St. Petersburg (1819).
Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separate. Parochial one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the “lower classes.” They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The district three-year schools accepted the children of merchants, artisans, and townspeople. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. The children of nobles, officials, and merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. Control over universities, which were considered sources of “unreliability,” was strengthened. In 1835, universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.
The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, was increasing. The Imperial Military Academy was opened in 1832, and the Artillery and Engineering Academies were opened in 1855.
The growth of industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.
The development of domestic science has greatly contributed to the improvement of the education system.
Scientific discoveries
| Biology | |
| Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky | Refuting the assertion that plants and animals are immutable, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time under the influence of natural causes. |
| Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky | He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process. |
| Karl Maksimovich Baer | A serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms was the work “The General Law of the Development of Nature.” |
| Medicine | |
| Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov | Professor of the Medical-Surgical Academy, founder of military field surgery. During the Crimean War, for the first time in field conditions used anesthesia during surgery and used a fixed plaster cast to treat fractures. |
| Mathematics | |
| Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Created non-Euclidean geometry |
| Physics | |
| Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov | Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - a prototype of the future light bulb |
| Boris Semenovich Jacobi | He invented the electric motor and electroforming, a method of applying a thin layer of metal to a desired surface using electricity. Invented a typesetting machine for the telegraph |
| Emil Christianovich Lenz | Established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law, and a year later an electric motor was invented on this basis |
| Pavel Lvovich Schilling | Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires |
| Chemistry | |
| Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff | Developed a method for producing glucose. |
| German Ivanovich Hess | Discovered the fundamental law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy in relation to chemical processes |
| Pyotr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky | Laid the beginning of powder metallurgy |
| Science in production | |
| Pavel Petrovich Anosov | Developed four technology options for producing damask steel |
| Efim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics | Built the first steam railway |
| Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov | Created sustainable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry |
| Story | |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin | Wrote the 12-volume “History of the Russian State” |
| Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev | Wrote “The History of Russia from Ancient Times” in 29 volumes |
Russian discoverers and travelers
| Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky | In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the expedition members about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials were used as the basis for the published Atlas South Seas». |
| Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev | In 1819-1821 Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new expedition around the world on the boats (single-masted ships) Vostok and Mirny. In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After stopping in Australia, Russian ships moved to the tropical part Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands. During 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, bringing back valuable collections, observation data on the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind. |
| Alexander Andreevich Baranov | He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. Being a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed. It was he who managed to secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia |
| Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky | In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. |
| Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin | In 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he began to secure the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia. |
Art culture
"Golden Age" of Russian Literature
In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its “golden age”. She raised the most important social problems, one of the main ones being the problem of strengthening national identity. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country and tried to find answers to modern questions in it.
An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change of artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.
The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century he was more associated with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.
The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod,” he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thereby a united and strong Russian state. His scientific work “History of the Russian State” was also imbued with these thoughts.
The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, and the moral traits of man in previous eras.
One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world.
Russian romanticism was characterized by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, and the establishment of a strong, liberated personality
The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads “Lyudmila” and “Svetlana” became examples of the style of new literature.
In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.
At the beginning of their creative work, the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov created romantic works. Their works, unlike the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by optimism in life and an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature of this direction were the works of the late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Belkin’s Tales”, the poem “The Bronze Horseman”, etc. as well as Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time”.
In the 20-50s. Another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends in the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works demanding changes.
The founder of the “natural school” (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the striking works of this artistic movement was his story “The Overcoat”, which, along with his other works: “Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”, and others, marked the beginning of the “Gogol period” of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol’s “The Overcoat”,” F.M. later noted. Dostoevsky.
Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky showed the realistic world of Russian merchants to the reader in his first drama “Our People – We Will Be Numbered,” who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchants.
In the 40-50s. The central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the fortress village, its customs and morals. A literary event was the publication of “Notes of a Hunter” by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, which described not only the nature of the Central Russian region, but also the serfs, whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.
The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf peasant were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich “Village” and “Anton the Miserable”. As one of his contemporaries wrote, “not a single educated person of that time... could read about Anton’s misfortunes without tears and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom.”
The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of a modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the ponderous written language of the previous century.
Theater
In the Russian theater, the change in artistic directions occurred as quickly as in literature.
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent ancient and mythological plots and external pomp.
In 20-30 years. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experiences of heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller’s drama “Cunning and Love”). His acting was distinguished by intense emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by their selfless struggle for freedom and justice.
In the 40s A new page begins in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to propose subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin at the Maly Theater became the largest social event in the life of Moscow.
Another remarkable actor from the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He conveyed with excellent skill the experiences and everyday life of the “little man” of his time.
An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Small Theater in its official character.
Music
Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic year of 1812. If previously everyday opera had prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of Russia’s historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".
The entire first half of the 19th century passed under the sign of the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.
The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, artists, only arrange it.”
Glinka managed to establish not only folk, but also realistic traditions in Russian music. He became the founder of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid idea of the composer’s work is given by his opera “A Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”). In it, Glinka glorified the simple peasant patriot and at the same time the courage, fortitude and greatness of character of the entire Russian people.
The development of the national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Rusalka" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.
Painting
During this period, there was a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological subjects, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. Artists' interest in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people, is growing.
The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - “The Last Day of Pompeii” - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying dignity, heroism and greatness common man in conditions of a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov outlined his desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-Portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.
The remarkable portraitists Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (president of the Academy of Arts). In them he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin’s work was showing a person in his surroundings, doing what he loved. These are his genre portraits “Lacemaker”, “Guitar Player”, “Gold Seamstress”, etc. Tropinin is also famous for being the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. A word that can show people the path to a better future.
The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: “Fresh Cavalier” and “Major’s Matchmaking”, in which the drama of situations and the author’s critical position in relation to reality are visible.
The birth of a popular everyday genre in the 19th century is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring", "At the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of peasants he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the “Venetian school”.
I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with their amazingly picturesque depictions of the sea elements. The painting “The Ninth Wave” became especially famous, being a striking example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifying to the romantic nature of his work during this period.
The center of artistic life in Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in Moscow in 1832.
Architecture
In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire style, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, strict lines inherited from imperial Rome. Sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings were also an important element of the Empire style. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, noble assemblies, public places, theaters and even temples were erected in the Empire style.
The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures combined into a single whole. It was then that Dvortsovaya, Admiralteyskaya and Senate squares were formed in St. Petersburg, and Teatralnaya in Moscow.
The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreyan Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi, who created the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, also worked in the Empire style. Public library, Senate and Synod.
In Moscow, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were carried out in the Empire style: Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, theatre square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gate, etc.
Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored the public buildings of Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.
With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. The “Russian-Byzantine” style begins to spread. Architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory Chamber, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) Station, etc. in this style.
The largest Orthodox church St. Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, the floor was personally supervised by Emperor Nicholas I.
| Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral | Interior decoration St. Isaac's Cathedral |
Sculpture
The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. Especially many works, organically integrated into architectural ensembles, were created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: “Horse Tamer” on Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.
In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos created a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments Moscow. Located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand towards Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an ancient sword and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national self-awareness in a difficult hour for the Fatherland.
The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and directions, the mutual enrichment and close interrelation of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the social sound of the works created, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, leading to an increase in its influence on the lives of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.
Second half of the 19th century
Education
The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of awareness by society and the state of the need for widespread education of the people. The educational reform carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:
1) zemstvo schools, created by zemstvo forces
2) church schools
3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education
According to the reform, secondary educational institutions were divided into two types:
-classical gymnasiums– they placed the main emphasis on studying humanities subjects; gymnasium graduates could enter universities without exams;
Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry; real schools prepared for entry into technical higher educational institutions.
Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type primary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. Main type high school there were gymnasiums. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. By the beginning of the 90s. About 300 girls' gymnasiums were opened.
There were also successes in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into force, expanding the rights of universities to govern themselves.
There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical-Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, and Transport Universities, the Electrotechnical University, and the Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher women's education was taking place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.
However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had higher education, 4% had secondary education.
Scientific discoveries
| Mathematics and physics | |
| Pafnutiy Lvovich Chebyshev – mathematician and physicist | He designed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal when walking, as well as an automatic adding machine - an adding machine. |
| Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist | By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the establishment of the electromagnetic theory of light |
| Alexander Stepanovich Popov – physicist | He made a receiver-transmitter, and after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For his discovery he was awarded the Grand Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900. |
| Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist | He created an electric arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world. |
| Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky | Designed the world's first airplane |
| Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov | Invented the crawler tractor |
| Chemistry, biology | |
| Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist | Discovered the periodic law of chemical elements, |
| Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist | Laid the foundations of organic chemistry |
| Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist | Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal; in his book, he outlined a plan to combat the drought that affected the black soil zone of Russia by planting forest shelterbelts |
| Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist | He created the doctrine of brain reflexes, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditionality of mental and physical phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain |
| Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist | He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and most recent form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If an unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the body, inherent in all representatives of a given species, then a conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of the body, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience. |
| Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists | They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods to combat rabies, and paid great attention to the control of pests of agricultural plants. |
| Geography | |
| Academician, Admiral Fedor Petrovich Litke - geographer | Explored Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific Ocean |
| Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer | He carried out major geological and zoological surveys of Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, and for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: wild horse, wild camel, Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand specimens, 218 new plant species were discovered |
| Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay - geographer | Dedicated his life to the study of peoples South-East Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. He won the love and trust of its residents. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, southeast coast, made two difficult journeys to the interior of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station. |
| Humanitarian sciences | |
| Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov | He created the 29-volume “History of Russia from Ancient Times.” His “Public Readings on Peter the Great,” dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical research method, pointing out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe. |
| Solovyov's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky | He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation “The Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'” at Moscow University. He was the author of the “Course of Russian History”, which he taught at Moscow University |
Domestic science of the second half of the 19th century reached the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom; they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.
Literature
The main artistic movement of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life on the basis of its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of denunciation, a keen interest in the life of the common man, and the desire to find ways and means to combat the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time scary, in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Sketches”, “The History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadours”. The artistic device the writer uses is grotesque. In his works he takes to the extreme all existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, or for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.
Who: Semyon Dezhnev, Cossack chieftain, merchant, fur trader.
When: 1648
What I discovered: The first to pass through the Bering Strait, which separates Eurasia from North America.
Thus, I found out that Eurasia and North America are two different continents, and that they do not meet.
Who: Thaddeus Bellingshausen, Russian admiral, navigator.
Trips
When: 1820.
What I discovered: Antarctica together with Mikhail Lazarev on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.
Commanded the Vostok. Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent.
Also, the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical “ Southern mainland", which was mistakenly marked on all medieval maps of Europe.
Navigators, including the famous Captain James Cook, searched for this “Southern Continent” in the Indian Ocean for more than three hundred and fifty years without any success, and of course, found nothing.
Who: Kamchaty Ivan, Cossack and sable hunter.
When: 1650s.
What I discovered: peninsula of Kamchatka, named after him.
Who: Semyon Chelyuskin, polar explorer, officer of the Russian fleet
When: 1742
What I discovered: most northern cape Eurasia, named after him Cape Chelyuskin.
Who: Ermak Timofeevich, Cossack chieftain in the service of the Russian Tsar. Ermak's last name is unknown. Possibly Tokmak.
When: 1581-1585
What I discovered: conquered and explored Siberia for the Russian state. To do this, he entered into a successful armed struggle with the Tatar khans in Siberia.
Ivan Kruzenshtern, Russian navy officer, admiral
When: 1803-1806.
What I discovered: The first Russian navigator to accomplish this trip around the world together with Yuri Lisyansky on the sloops “Nadezhda” and “Neva”. Commanded "Nadezhda"
Who: Yuri Lisyansky, Russian navy officer, captain
When: 1803-1806.
What I discovered: He was the first Russian navigator to circumnavigate the world together with Ivan Kruzenshtern on the sloops “Nadezhda” and “Neva”. Commanded the Neva.
Who: Petr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky
When: 1856-57
What I discovered: He was the first European to explore the Tien Shan Mountains.
He also later studied a number of areas in Central Asia. For his exploration of the mountain system and services to science, he received from the authorities of the Russian Empire the honorary surname Tien-Shansky, which he had the right to pass on by inheritance.
Who: Vitus Bering
When: 1727-29
What I discovered: He was the second (after Semyon Dezhnev) and the first of the scientific researchers to reach North America, passing through the Bering Strait, thereby confirming its existence. Confirmed that North America and Eurasia are two different continents.
Who: Khabarov Erofey, Cossack, fur trader
When: 1649-53
What I discovered: mastered part of Siberia and the Far East for the Russians, studied the lands near the Amur River.
Who: Mikhail Lazarev, Russian naval officer.
When: 1820
What I discovered: Antarctica together with Thaddeus Bellingshausen on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.
Commanded the Mirny. Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent. Also, the Russian expedition finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical “Southern Continent”, which was depicted on the medieval European maps, and which sailors searched unsuccessfully for four hundred years in a row.
Of particular importance were the achievements of Russian scientists in the field geographical research. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half XIX century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.
Expeditions into the depths of Asia began Pyotr Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), geographer, statistician, botanist.
He made a number of trips to the mountains Central Asia, in the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.
The activities of others were also associated with the Russian Geographical Society Russian travelers- P.
A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.
P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayan Mountains and the Vitim Plateau.
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) He made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible areas of Central Asia.
He crossed Mongolia and Northern China several times, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, and visited Tibet. He died on the way, at the beginning of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ascetics are needed like the sun.” “Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society,” he added, “they excite, console and ennoble...
Russian travelers of the 19th century (briefly)
If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond all price.”
Overseas Russian travel scientists in the second half of the 19th century.
have become more targeted. If previously they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This is a direction that began in the 18th century. put by S.P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888).
He made his first trips to Canary Islands and by North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands and studied the life of local peoples. He lived for 16 months among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast).
Russian scientist won trust and love local residents. Then he traveled through the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and again returned to the “coast of Maclay”. The scientist’s descriptions of the life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania were largely published only after his death.
World geographical science in those years relied heavily on the achievements of Russian researchers.
By the end of the 19th century. an era has ended geographical discoveries . And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian explorers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.
§The first Russian Marxist V.
G. Plekhanov
§The beginning of Lenin's revolutionary activity
§The beginning of the reign of Alexander I
§The beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812
§End of the Patriotic War of 1812
I. Kruzenshtern and Y. Lisyansky In 1803, an expedition was undertaken to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. This was the FIRST RUSSIAN EXPEDITION. It was headed by I. Kruzenshtern. More than a thousand km of coastlines were mapped for the first time. Sakhalin. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. We collected a lot of data about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. These materials formed the basis of the Atlas of the South Seas. In 1803, an expedition was undertaken to explore the North Pacific Ocean. This was the FIRST RUSSIAN EXPEDITION. It was headed by I. Kruzenshtern. More than a thousand km of coastlines were mapped for the first time. Sakhalin. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. We collected a lot of data about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. These materials formed the basis of the Atlas of the South Seas.
F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev F. Bellingshausen led a new expedition around the world. The plan was drawn up by I. Kruzenshtern. In F. Bellingshausen led a new expedition around the world. The plan was drawn up by I. Kruzenshtern. The goal was “acquiring complete knowledge about our globe” and “discovering the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole.” On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, then, after stopping in Australia, the ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called Islands of the Russians The goal was “acquiring complete knowledge about our globe” and “discovering the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole.” On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, then, after stopping in Australia, the ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands , called the Russian Islands
A. Baranov and the development of Russian America In search of new hunting areas, A. Baranov studied Kodiak Island in detail. It was he who for the first time managed to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia. In 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of Alaska. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to Hawaiian Islands with the aim of their annexation to Russia. In search of new hunting areas, A. Baranov studied Kodiak Island in detail. It was he who for the first time managed to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia. In 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of Alaska. In 1815 he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of annexing them to Russia.
G. Nevelskoy and E. Putyatin G. Nevelskoy is the largest researcher of the Far East. In 2 expeditions (and) he managed to discover new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. G. Nevelskoy is the largest researcher of the Far East. In 2 expeditions (and) he managed to discover new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin - discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. And he was the first Russian to visit Japan and sign an agreement there. E. Putyatin - discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. And he was the first Russian to visit Japan and sign an agreement there. The result of the expedition of G. Nevelsky and E. Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the assignment of the Primorsky region in the Far East to Russia. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was opened. The result of the expedition of G. Nevelsky and E. Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the assignment of the Primorsky region in the Far East to Russia. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was opened.
Without Russian discoverers, the world map would be completely different. Our compatriots - travelers and sailors - made discoveries that enriched world science. About the eight most noticeable ones - in our material.
Bellingshausen's first Antarctic expedition
In 1819, the navigator, captain of the 2nd rank, Thaddeus Bellingshausen led the first round-the-world Antarctic expedition. The purpose of the voyage was to explore the waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, as well as proof or refutation of the existence of the sixth continent - Antarctica. Having equipped two sloops - "Mirny" and "Vostok" (under the command), Bellingshausen's detachment went to sea.
The expedition lasted 751 days and wrote many bright pages in the history of geographical discoveries. The main one was made on January 28, 1820.
By the way, attempts to open the white continent had been made before, but did not bring the desired success: a little luck was missing, and perhaps Russian perseverance.
Thus, the navigator James Cook, summing up his second circumnavigation, wrote: “I walked around the ocean of the southern hemisphere in high latitudes and rejected the possibility of the existence of a continent, which, if it could be discovered, would only be near the pole in places inaccessible to navigation.”
During Bellingshausen's Antarctic expedition, more than 20 islands were discovered and mapped, sketches of Antarctic species and the animals living there were made, and the navigator himself went down in history as a great discoverer.
“The name of Bellingshausen can be directly placed alongside the names of Columbus and Magellan, with the names of those people who did not retreat in the face of difficulties and imaginary impossibilities created by their predecessors, with the names of people who followed their own independent path, and therefore were destroyers of barriers to discovery, which designate epochs,” wrote the German geographer August Petermann.
Discoveries of Semenov Tien-Shansky
Central Asia at the beginning of the 19th century was one of the least studied areas of the globe. An undeniable contribution to the study of the “unknown land” - as geographers called Central Asia - was made by Pyotr Semenov.
In 1856, the researcher’s main dream came true - he went on an expedition to the Tien Shan.
“My work on Asian geography led me to a thorough acquaintance with everything that was known about inner Asia. I was especially attracted to the most central of the Asian mountain ranges - the Tien Shan, which had not yet been touched by a European traveler and was known only from scanty Chinese sources.
Semenov's research in Central Asia lasted two years. During this time, the sources of the Chu, Syr Darya and Sary-Jaz rivers, the peaks of Khan Tengri and others were mapped.
The traveler established the location of the Tien Shan ridges, the height of the snow line in this area and discovered the huge Tien Shan glaciers.
In 1906, by decree of the emperor, for the merits of the discoverer, the prefix began to be added to his surname - Tien Shan.
Asia Przhevalsky
In the 70−80s. XIX century Nikolai Przhevalsky led four expeditions to Central Asia. This little-studied area has always attracted the researcher, and traveling to Central Asia has been his long-time dream.
Over the years of research have been studied mountain systems Kun-Lun , ridges of Northern Tibet, sources of the Yellow River and Yangtze, basins Kuku-nora and Lob-nora.
Przhevalsky was the second person after Marco Polo to reach lakes-swamps Lob-nora!
In addition, the traveler discovered dozens of species of plants and animals that are named after him.
“Happy fate made it possible to make a feasible exploration of the least known and most inaccessible countries of inner Asia,” Nikolai Przhevalsky wrote in his diary.
Kruzenshtern's circumnavigation
The names of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky became known after the first Russian round-the-world expedition.
For three years, from 1803 to 1806. - that’s how long the first circumnavigation of the world lasted - the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva”, having passed through Atlantic Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and then reached Kamchatka by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. The expedition clarified the map of the Pacific Ocean and collected information about the nature and inhabitants of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands.
During the voyage, Russian sailors crossed the equator for the first time. This event was celebrated, according to tradition, with the participation of Neptune.
The sailor, dressed as the lord of the seas, asked Krusenstern why he came here with his ships, because the Russian flag had not been seen in these places before. To which the expedition commander replied: “For the glory of science and our fatherland!”
Nevelsky Expedition
Admiral Gennady Nevelskoy is rightfully considered one of the outstanding navigators of the 19th century. In 1849 on transport ship"Baikal" he goes on an expedition to Far East.
The Amur expedition lasted until 1855, during which time Nevelskoy made several major discoveries in the area of the lower reaches of the Amur and the northern shores Sea of Japan, annexed the vast expanses of the Amur and Primorye regions to Russia.
Thanks to the navigator, it became known that Sakhalin is an island that is separated by the navigable Tatar Strait, and the mouth of the Amur is accessible for ships to enter from the sea.
In 1850, Nevelsky’s detachment founded the Nikolaev post, which today is known as Nikolaevsk-on-Amur.
“The discoveries made by Nevelsky are invaluable for Russia,” wrote Count Nikolai Muravyov-Amursky “Many previous expeditions to these regions could have achieved European glory, but none of them achieved domestic benefit, at least to the extent that Nevelskoy accomplished this.”
North of Vilkitsky
The purpose of the hydrographic expedition of the Arctic Ocean in 1910-1915. was the development of the Northern sea route. By chance, captain 2nd rank Boris Vilkitsky took over the duties of the voyage leader. Icebreaking steamships "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" went to sea.
Vilkitsky moved through the northern waters from east to west, and during his voyage he was able to compile a true description north coast Eastern Siberia and many islands, received the most important information about currents and climate, and also became the first to make a through voyage from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk.
The expedition members discovered the Land of Emperor Nicholas I., known today as New Earth- this discovery is considered the last of the significant ones on the globe.
In addition, thanks to Vilkitsky, the islands of Maly Taimyr, Starokadomsky and Zhokhov were put on the map.
At the end of the expedition the First World War. The traveler Roald Amundsen, having learned about the success of Vilkitsky’s voyage, could not resist exclaiming to him:
"IN Peaceful time this expedition would excite the whole world!”
Kamchatka campaign of Bering and Chirikov
The second quarter of the 18th century was rich in geographical discoveries. All of them were made during the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions, which immortalized the names of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov.
During the First Kamchatka campaign Bering, the leader of the expedition, and his assistant Chirikov explored and mapped Pacific Coast Kamchatka and Northeast Asia. Two peninsulas were discovered - Kamchatsky and Ozerny, Kamchatka Bay, Karaginsky Bay, Cross Bay, Providence Bay and St. Lawrence Island, as well as the strait, which today bears the name of Vitus Bering.
Companions - Bering and Chirikov - also led the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goal of the campaign was to find a way to North America and explore the Pacific Islands.
In Avachinskaya Bay, the expedition members founded the Petropavlovsk fort - in honor of the ships "St. Peter" and "St. Paul" - which was later renamed Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
When the ships set sail to the shores of America, by the will of an evil fate, Bering and Chirikov began to act alone - due to fog, their ships lost each other.
"St. Peter" under Bering reached west coast America.
And on the way back, the members of the expedition, who had to endure many difficulties, were washed up by a storm. small island. This is where Vitus Bering’s life ended, and the island where the expedition members stopped for the winter was named after Bering.
Chirikov’s “Saint Paul” also reached the shores of America, but for him the voyage ended more happily - on the way back he discovered a number of islands of the Aleutian ridge and safely returned to the Peter and Paul prison.
“Unclear Earthlings” by Ivan Moskvitin
Little is known about the life of Ivan Moskvitin, but this man nevertheless went down in history, and the reason for this was the new lands he discovered.
In 1639, Moskvitin, leading a detachment of Cossacks, set sail to the Far East. The main goal of the travelers was to “find new unknown lands” and collect furs and fish. The Cossacks crossed the Aldan, Mayu and Yudoma rivers, discovered the Dzhugdzhur ridge, separating the rivers of the Lena basin from the rivers flowing into the sea, and along the Ulya River they reached the “Lamskoye”, or Sea of Okhotsk. Having explored the coast, the Cossacks discovered the Taui Bay and entered the Sakhalin Bay, rounding the Shantar Islands.
One of the Cossacks reported that the rivers in open lands“sable, there are a lot of all kinds of animals, and fish, and the fish are big, there is no such thing in Siberia... there are so many of them - just throw a net and you can’t drag it out with the fish...”.
Geographic data collected by Ivan Moskvitin formed the basis of the first map of the Far East.
>>Russian discoverers and travelers
§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers
The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched Russians' ideas about the world around them and contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time realized a long-standing dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.
I. F. Krusenstern and Yu. F. Lisyansky.
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