Characteristics of Oceania. Report - Oceania

Oceania is the name of the largest collection of large and small islands on our planet in the western and central parts Pacific Ocean. The islands of Oceania occupy about 1.3 million square kilometers of the Earth's surface and there are almost 7 thousand of them, large and small.

Island regions of Oceania

Traditionally, the islands of Oceania are divided by geographers, historians and ethnographers into three groups: Melanesia with the largest island of New Guinea, Micronesia, Polynesia with the second largest island of Oceania, New Zealand.

Island region of Oceania Melanesia (“black island”)

Melanesia is located in the west of Oceania and, in addition to New Guinea, it includes the archipelagos of Bismarck and Louisiada, as well as the islands of D'Anrtkastro, the islands of Santa Cruz, the Solomon Islands, the New Herbide islands, the island of New Caledonia, the Fiji islands, Loyalty and several others .

The main part of the territory of Melanesia falls on the island of New Guinea. He owns 829 of the 969 thousand square kilometers occupied by this area of ​​​​Oceanian islands.

Island region of Oceania Polynesia (“multi-island”)

Polynesia stretches from the southwest to the east of Oceania. The largest islands of Polynesia are New Zealand, Hawaiian Islands, Tonga Islands, Samoa, Wallis Islands, Tokelau Islands, Horne Islands, Cook Islands, Tuvalu Islands, Tubuai Islands, Societies Islands, Marquesas Islands and Easter Island.

265 thousand square kilometers of the total area of ​​Polynesia are in New Zealand, 17 thousand in the Hawaiian Islands and 9 thousand in all the rest.

Ocean Islands Region Micronesia (“small island”)

Micronesia is located in the northwest of Oceania. The total area of ​​its islands is only 2.6 thousand square kilometers, but these smallest islands are scattered over an ocean area of ​​​​about 14 million square kilometers.

The main island groups of Micronesia are the Marshall Islands, the Caroline Islands, the Mariana Islands, and the Gilbert Islands.

Islands of Oceania by type of origin

The islands of Oceania differ in their origin and on this basis they are usually divided into four types: volcanic, coral or atoll (biogenic), continental, and geosynclinal.

Volcanic islands of Oceania

The volcanic islands of Oceania are the peaks of dormant or active underwater volcanoes. Among them there are islands with areas ranging from ten square kilometers to several thousand and they are the main type of islands in Oceania.

The most famous of the volcanic islands are the Hawaiian Islands, Easter Island, Tahiti and Samoa.

Coral Islands of Oceania (biogenic)

In shallow ocean waters, entire colonies of small marine animals - corals - usually settle. Over the centuries, when corals die, their skeletons cover the ocean floor, are pressed and form rock. Over time, coral reefs and entire islands appear above the surface of the water, and if coral deposits occurred along the contour of an underwater volcano, then atolls appear - coral islands with a lagoon in the center.

There are hundreds of coral islands (atolls) in Oceania, both single and forming entire archipelagos. These are the Caroline, Mariana, Marshall Islands, as well as the Gilbert and Tuamotu Islands. The largest atoll in Oceania is Kwajalein. Its territory area is 2.3 thousand square kilometers (including the area of ​​the lagoon) and it belongs to the Marshall Islands archipelago.

Mainland Islands of Oceania

The mainland islands of Oceania were once part of the mainland and became islands as a result of the movement of the earth's crust. Thus, New Guinea is separated from the Australian mainland only by a strait, the bottom of which until recently was dry land, and New Zealand is part of a huge continent that once existed, which included both Australia and Antarctica.

The mainland islands of Oceania account for 90% of its territory. They have both lowlands and mountain systems, and long mountain plateaus.

Groups of islands and archipelagos of the western and central parts are united in geographical area under the general name Oceania. Historically, all the islands have been divided into four ethnographic-geographical regions: (Tonga, Samoa, Cook, Hawaiian Islands, Easter Island, etc.), Melanesia (Island, Bismarck Archipelago, Islands, etc.), ( , Mariana Islands, etc.), Novaya. Most of The islands of Oceania are concentrated between 10° S. w. and 20° N. w.

The Russian scientist N. N. Miklouho-Maclay made a great contribution to the study of the nature and population of Oceania. He studied the life of the peoples of the island of New Guinea and left descriptions of the nature of coastal areas. The scientific research of N. N. Miklouho-Maclay was associated with his conviction of the need to protect backward and oppressed peoples. At the very end of the 19th century. Our fellow countryman, a native of the Mogilev province N.K. Sudzilovsky, lived and worked in the Hawaiian Islands.

Geological structure and relief of Oceania

Remember how continental, volcanic and coral islands were formed. The largest mainland islands Oceania is New Guinea and New Zealand. Volcanism is a characteristic process of this region. The Hawaiian Islands are home to Kilauea Volcano, one of the most active active volcanoes on Earth. Volcanic islands form giant island arcs. They have an elongated configuration. Oceania is replete with coral islands - reefs and atolls, which form entire archipelagos (Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu).

Oceania Climate

The islands of Oceania are located mainly in the equatorial, subequatorial and. Only the northern part of the Hawaiian archipelago extends into the subtropics, and the southern part of New Zealand is located in the temperate zone. There are two climatic regions in Oceania: trade wind and monsoon. The climate of Oceania is characterized by slight temperature fluctuations: from +30 °C during the day to +21 °C at night. Winds from the ocean soften the heat. It is never too cold or too hot here, so the climate of Oceania is considered the most comfortable on the globe. The main directions are from east to west. They facilitate the dispersal of organisms.

Marine air masses dominate in Oceania. In areas where monsoon circulation prevails, precipitation falls 3000-4000 mm per year. In the Hawaiian Islands, on the windward slopes, over 12,090 mm of precipitation falls per year. This is one of the wettest places on Earth. The distribution of precipitation is related to the presence of mountains. There are areas on the island of Hawaii that receive less than 200 mm of precipitation per year.

Among the very dangerous and destructive natural phenomena Tropical hurricanes are not observed. They destroy plantations, destroy homes, and sometimes the resulting waves wash away all living things. The local population is wary of settling on the Cook Islands and Tuamotu, where hurricanes are frequent. A subtropical and temperate climate is characteristic of New Zealand, where in winter there are frosts down to -13 ° C, and there is snow in the mountains.

Flora and fauna of Oceania

The isolation of the island land had the greatest impact on its and. The diversity of the plant and animal world depends on the age of the islands, their size and distance from the mainland. It is poorest on coral islands, where fresh water is scarce and soils are poor. Only a few dozen species of plants grow on them. On the islands of Oceania, mainly in Melanesia, the most ancient plants have been preserved, for example tree ferns, reaching 8-15 m in height. The flora of New Zealand is rich and unique (pine trees, palm trees).

Vegetable and animal world Oceania is distinguished by two features. Rare species that are not found on the mainland have been preserved here. At the same time, on many islands, entire groups of organisms common to the mainland are almost completely absent. Many species of flowering plants that are found on land are absent here, but spore-bearing plants are widespread. Ancient plants that grew on the mainland in the geological past (podocarpus, agathis (kauri), etc.) have been preserved on the islands.

The fauna of the islands is poor. There are no mammals on many islands, with the exception of rats, mice, goats and cats that were introduced here. There are many seabirds: petrels, albatrosses, gulls that nest and raise their chicks here. On the island of New Guinea there is a weed chicken, a representative of the Australian fauna.

In New Zealand, the oldest flightless bird, the kiwi, is preserved, a very cautious bird that lives in dense grasses, the Maori rail. The kiwi bird is featured on the coat of arms of New Zealand. Rare species of parrots are found in New Zealand and New Zealand - the kakapo, or owl parrot, and the kea parrot, with a strong, sharp and curved beak. The first lizard tuateria was preserved on one of the islands of New Zealand.

Only 5-7 species of seabirds nest on individual islands. At the same time, the number of bird species in New Guinea is more than 100, and the insect fauna is rich (more than 3,700 species).

Minerals of Oceania

Minerals on the islands of Oceania are distributed extremely unevenly. Farming is carried out where there are valuable minerals. Thus, New Caledonia contains up to 25% of the world's nickel reserves, and Christmas Island has phosphate reserves. Among the states of Oceania, Papua New Guinea stands out, where there is gold, silver, and reserves have been explored.

Economic activities of Oceania

The population of Oceania is about 10 million people. There are several hypotheses about the routes of settlement of Oceania. Most scientists believe that Oceania was settled by people from Southeast Asia many millennia ago. According to Thor Heyerdahl's hypothesis, immigrants from America settled there.

The inhabitants of Oceania were skilled sailors and shipbuilders. They sailed thousands of kilometers from their home islands. Modern residents of Oceania are engaged in growing coconut palms, bananas, cocoa, and coffee. Traditional trade is fishing. The nature and life of the people of Oceania are largely subject to natural catastrophic disasters (tropical hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanism).

On many islands of volcanic and continental origin, non-ferrous metal ores, coal are mined, and phosphorite deposits are developed. Every year, the states of Oceania become objects of international tourism. The nature of the islands is changing under the influence economic activity person. In place of the destroyed natural plantations, plantations have been created where sugar cane, pineapples, bananas, tea, coffee, rubber and other crops are cultivated.

Oceania political map

Modern political map Oceania emerged as a result of a long struggle between the colonial powers to divide the oceanic archipelagos among themselves. Until the beginning of the 60s. XX century There was one independent state in Oceania - New Zealand. By the end of the twentieth century. more than 10 were formed in Oceania independent states. A number of islands and archipelagos remain politically and economically dependent on the world. Most of the Hawaiian Islands archipelago has formed the 50th state of the United States since 1959.

The formation of the nature of Oceania is influenced by the Pacific Ocean, its distance from other continents, and its location in tropical latitudes. The basis of the economy of most countries in Oceania is agriculture. Mining is carried out on many islands.

Composition, geological structure, relief and minerals

Between Southeast Asia and America huge water area Pacific Ocean occupies the world's largest cluster of islands. There are more than $10$ thousand. This Oceania.

Definition 1

Oceania are islands and archipelagos located in the central and southwestern Pacific Ocean

This island land has a total area of ​​about $1.3 million square km, which is only $2% of the ocean area. The geographical location of the islands, as well as their size and relief, are most directly related to their origin.

The genesis of the islands allows us to identify $4 $ main types:

• Mainland Islands;
• Volcanic Islands;
• Biogenic islands;
• Geosynclinal islands.

To the islands mainland of origin include the largest in area - New Guinea, New Zealand, which account for $80$% of Oceania's land area. The relief of these islands has mountain ranges and vast low-lying plains. Hawaiian islands, for example, are typical volcanic, A coral reefs and atolls have biogenic origin.

Definition 2

Atolls- These are flat, low ring-shaped islands in the middle with a lagoon connected to the ocean.

Example atolls are the islands of Central Polynesia - Tuamotu archipelago, atoll Kwajalein having the world's largest lagoon in the archipelago Marshall Islands. Coral islands were formed in quaternary period when sections of the Pacific Ocean floor subsided. In the western part of Oceania lie geosynclinal islands. Most of the islands have volcanic origins, and some represent the pinnacles underwater volcanoes – Samoa, Cook, Easter, Marquesas Islands. Minerals are distributed extremely widely across the islands unevenly, and on many of them it’s just none. Development is carried out only on the largest ones. New Caledonia has nickel reserves, there is oil and gas New Guinea and New Zealand. New Guinea still has reserves copper and gold. Phosphorite reserves have been discovered at island atolls. As a nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer, active development was carried out in the past on many island atolls. guano– decomposed droppings of seabirds.

Note 1

In Oceania, based on regional landscape differences, $4$ physical and geographical countries are distinguished:

• Melanesia. It includes New Guinea, the archipelagos of Bismarck, Louisaida, Solomon Islands, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Fiji, etc.
• Micronesia. It has $1,500 islands - among them the archipelagos of Kazan, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall Islands, Gilbert Islands, Nauru. They are all small in area.
• New Zealand;
• Polynesia. " Poly» – a lot of islands. Polynesia can be described as a triangle whose corners are Hawaii-New Zealand-Easter Island.

Oceania Climate

Note 2

Oceania lies within the $3 main and $2 transition climate zones:

• Equatorial belt;
• Subequatorial belt;
• Tropical zone;
• Subtropical zone;
• Temperate zone.

Predominant on the islands tropical climate, and subequatorial dominates near Australia and Asia. West of the $180$ meridian the islands lie in equatorial climate, and in subtropical climate lie islands located north and south of the tropics. Moderate The belt occupies most of New Zealand. The climate of the islands is determined mainly trade winds, which means that they receive heavy rainfall. During the year, precipitation can vary from $1500$-$4000$ mm. The topography of some islands and their leeward sides reduce precipitation, and the climate may be drier or wetter. One of the most wet places on the planet located precisely in Oceania on the eastern slope of the mountain Waialeale– $11430$ mm per year. The mountain is located on an island Kauai, where in $1982 $16,916 mm fell - this was an absolute maximum. The average temperature near the tropics is +$23$ degrees, and in the equator region is +$27$. The difference between summer and winter is insignificant here. Two ocean currents El Niño And La Niña have a great influence on the climate of Oceania. Flow El Niño due to the fact that the intertropical convergence zone is moving towards equator, i.e. to the north, at La Nina the movement goes to the south, i.e. from the equator A. In the first case, abundant rains, in the second case, there is a strong drought. The river system of islands is related to the climate. There are large rivers only in New Zealand – Waikato River and New Guinea - Sepik and Fly rivers. Naturally, rivers are fed rain, and recharge comes from melting glaciers. On the atolls of the river none at all. Lakes, including thermal, are situated in New Zealand, is here and geysers. Lakes on other islands of Oceania are very rare.

Nature of Oceania

The distance from the continents, the small size of the islands and the vast expanse of water around them significantly influenced the nature and life of peoples. The centers of flora formation were large islands, but at the same time many species of plants from Australia, the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia migrated to the islands.

Note 3

As a result, Oceania is included in Paleotropical area of ​​vegetation in which $3$ subareas are distinguished:

• Malesian floristic subregion;
• Hawaiian Subregion;
• New Zealand subregion.

Malesian The subregion is characterized by numerous tropical families - pandanus, ficus, water lilies, bananas, laurel and widespread legumes. There are many epiphytes here - ferns, orchids.

Hawaiian The subregion is represented by one genus of palms, a small number of orchids, and the absence of gymnosperms and ficus. But there are a lot of ferns here. These are the first plants to settle in the cracks of cooled lava flows.

For New Zealand In the subregion there will be numerous species of Asteraceae, ferns, sedges, and grasses.

The most common plants in Oceania are coconut palms and breadfruit trees. Their fruits are used for food, and their wood is a source of heat and building material. The endosperm of coconut palm nuts is the source copra, and it is the basis of exports to the countries of Oceania. In Hawaii and New Zealand there are endemics flora and fauna. Coral the islands have very poor species composition. Cultivated plants include pineapples, bananas, and sugar cane. The composition of the fauna has specific features that are associated with ocean spaces, causing difficulties for the settlement of animals. Species composition of fauna poor, complete absence mammals. In this regard, a significant part of Oceania is allocated to Polynesian zoogeographic region. There are many flying birds - swifts, pigeons. Small animals include bats, dogs, foxes, lizards. Insects are accidentally carried on the trunks of floating trees. In New Zealand, a representative of the fauna is kiwi- the national symbol of the country. Among the endemics are kea or nestor, kakapo or owl parrot, takahe or wingless sultana.

Note 4

Oceania developed under conditions of long-term isolation from mainland land. This determined originality its landscapes, manifested in the geological structure and relief, in the high endemism and poverty of species composition of flora and fauna. These reasons provide grounds for singling out Oceania as special part of the world has no analogues on the continents.

Geographical location of Oceania, countries and dependent territories of Oceania

Geology and climate of Oceania, soils and hydrology of Oceania, economy and culture of Oceania, Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia

Section 1. Main characteristics of Oceania.

Section 2. Physiographic countries of Oceania.

Oceania- This part of the world; a geographical, often geopolitical, region of the world consisting primarily of hundreds of small islands and atolls in the central and western Pacific Ocean.

Main characteristics of Oceania

Oceania is the world's largest collection of islands, located in the western and central Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the Northern and temperate Southern hemispheres. When dividing the entire landmass into parts of the world, Oceania is usually united with Australia into a single part of the world, Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it is separated into an independent part of the world.

Oceania is a large number of islands (about ten thousand) located in the center and south - west of the Pacific Ocean. Oceania is located between the Malay Archipelago and Australia. Divided into Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and sometimes New Zealand. The total area of ​​the islands is about 1.25 million square kilometers. These islands are inhabited by approximately 18 million people.

Oceania is based on New Zealand (South and North Islands) and New Guinea. These islands make up 4/5 of the entire territory. The islands of western Micronesia and Melanesia are a large mountain range rising from the ocean floor, the peaks being above the water. These islands are craters of underwater volcanoes: Samoa, Cook, Easter, Hawaiian, Marquesas.

In Hawaii: Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, if counted from the ocean floor, reach nine thousand meters. But mostly Micronesia and Polynesia are islands of animal origin (atolls) of coral. They grew from underwater volcanic craters.

Oceania is a unique natural wonder, each island is its own world, with its own charms. The flora is very diverse. Some islands have vegetation of all climatic zones. The characteristic tree of Oceania is the coconut palm. Its wood is used for construction, and ropes are woven from palm fibers. Coconut oil is used to make soap and margarine.

The total area of ​​the islands is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Geographically, Oceania is divided into Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia; New Zealand is sometimes singled out.

In the Pacific Ocean, in its central and western parts, there is the largest cluster of islands on the globe, with a total area of ​​about 1.26 million km2, most of which are grouped into archipelagos. All the islands are united under the name Oceania. The development of Oceania took place under conditions of long-term isolation from the mainland, which determines the deep originality of its landscapes. It is manifested both in the geological structure and relief, and in high endemism and poverty of the species composition of flora and fauna, especially in the most remote eastern islands. These reasons provide the basis for identifying Oceania as a special part of the world with the dominance of oceanic landscapes, which has no analogues on the continents. The geological structure of the islands of Oceania is in direct connection with the structure of the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Almost all the islands are of coral or volcanic origin. In central Oceania (Polynesia and eastern Micronesia), they represent the peaks of submarine volcanoes crowning submarine ridges, erected by powerful outpourings of basaltic lavas at the end of the Neogene and in the Quaternary period along the fault lines of the ancient oceanic platform of the Pacific Ocean floor. The formation of coral islands occurred in the Quaternary period in connection with ecstatic fluctuations in the level of the Pacific Ocean and deflections of sections of its bottom. The islands, concentrated on the western edge of Oceania, lie in zones of geosynclinal structures framing the central platform, and are (according to V.V. Belousov) the tops of grandiose underwater ridges, the leading structures of geosynclinal zones. On the outer (oceanic) side, these islands are framed by deep-sea depressions, extremely clearly expressed in the topography of the ocean floor due to the extremely slow processes of demolition and accumulation of sediments. Mountain-building movements in the peripheral Pacific geosynclines actively manifested themselves in the Mesozoic and Alpine cycles, but have not ended at the present time, as evidenced by frequent and strong earthquakes and active volcanism on the islands. The islands of western Oceania are the largest and most mountainous. Among them they stand out for their size and high mountainous terrain New Zealand and New Guinea, which account for 80% of Oceania's land area. The islands are scattered at latitudes ranging from subtropical in the northern hemisphere to temperate in the southern (lie between 28°25"N and 52°30"S and 130°E and 105°20"W) , but most of them are concentrated in subequatorial zones, which determines the main features of temperature variations and moisture regimes.The influence of land affects the climate of the islands closest to Australia and Southeast Asia.

The rest are characterized by small daily and seasonal amplitudes of high temperatures, constantly high relative humidity and large amounts of precipitation, due to the exclusive dominance of marine air masses. The average temperatures of the warmest months (August in the northern hemisphere, February in the southern) vary from 25°C in the north to 16°C in the south, the coldest months (February and August) from 16°C to 5°C. Sharp fluctuations in seasonal and daily temperatures are characteristic only of mountainous islands, where high-altitude climatic zones appear. In New Zealand and New Guinea, high-altitude climatic zones end in a nival climate. Average annual precipitation varies enormously depending on orography. Wet winds (mainly trade winds from both hemispheres) sweep freely over the low, small islands, but rise along the windward slopes of the high mountainous islands, which receive heavy orographic rain (in some places up to 9000 mm or more). This creates sharp climatic and landscape contrasts on slopes of different exposures. Evergreen moist forests grow on the windward slopes, a dense network of deep rivers develops, erosion and chemical weathering of rocks actively occur, and podzolization of lateritic soils occurs. The leeward slopes are dominated by mixed (deciduous-evergreen) forests, xerophytic woodlands and peculiar oceanic savannas with hard grasses, pandanus, and groves of coconut palms. The low islands, where mainly cyclonic precipitation from tropical fronts falls, are covered with oceanic savannas, forests of coconut palms and pandanus trees, mangroves (mainly on coral islands) and even semi-desert vegetation; outcrops of dense, unweathered basalts are completely bare. The large islands of Oceania were centers of flora formation. At the same time, many plant species migrated to the islands from Australia, and mainly from the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia, as a result of which almost all of Oceania is included in the Malesian floristic subregion of the Paleotropics, which is extremely poor in species composition and highly endemic. The question of the distribution of organisms in Oceania remains unresolved. It is generally believed that migration took place over temporary land bridges. On the other hand, one cannot underestimate the role of winds, currents, birds and, finally, people, who in ancient times made long voyages between archipelagos. The greatest endemism of the flora is found in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, which are divided into special subregions. Among the plants of Oceania, there are many useful for humans: coconut and sago palms, bananas, rubber plants, mangoes, melon and breadfruit trees.

Many tropical crops are grown on the islands: pineapples, bananas, sugar cane, etc. Ocean spaces present great difficulties for the settlement of animals, therefore the composition of the fauna in Oceania is very specific, characterized by great depletion, primarily due to the almost complete absence of mammals. For this reason, most of Oceania is allocated to the Polynesian zoogeographic region. On the islands there are a lot of well-flying birds (swifts, pigeons, etc.) and there are some small animals (mainly bats, dogs and foxes, lizards), as well as insects that were accidentally carried on the trunks of floating trees. The imported animals and birds caused great harm to the fauna of Oceania, many of which occupied empty ecological niches, found a favorable environment for reproduction, and sometimes completely destroyed not only local animals, but also plant cover. Regional landscape differences allow us to distinguish four physical-geographical countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.

The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous seas of the Pacific (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans (Arafura Sea).

From a geological point of view, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea and Tasmania are of continental origin, having formed on the site of the hypothetical continent of Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single landmass, but as a result of rising sea levels, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and highly dissected. For example, the highest mountains of Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island of New Guinea.

Most of the islands of Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which still exhibit high volcanic activity (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).

Other islands are of coral origin, being atolls that were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). A distinctive feature of such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, average height which does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Although its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. miles), its lagoon area is 2,174 km² (or 839.3 sq. miles). The largest atoll in terms of land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among atolls there is also a special type - a raised (or elevated) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m high above sea level. This type of island does not have a lagoon or there are traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Nauru, Niue, and Banaba.

The relief and geological structure of the Pacific Ocean floor in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the Alaska Peninsula (part of North America) to New Zealand there are a large number of basins of marginal seas, deep ocean trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting relief.

Most of the islands of Oceania have no mineral resources, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (New Caledonia), oil and gas (New Guinea island, New Zealand), copper (Bougainville island in Papua New Guinea), gold (New Guinea , Fiji), phosphates (on most islands the deposits are almost or already developed, for example, in Nauru, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, many islands in the region were heavily mined for guano, the decomposed droppings of seabirds, which were used as nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but in currently no developments are being carried out due to economic inexpediency.

Oceania is located within several climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate. Most of the islands have a tropical climate. Subequatorial climate prevails on the islands near Australia and Asia, as well as east of the 180th meridian in the equator zone, equatorial - west of the 180th meridian, subtropical - north and south of the tropics, temperate - on most of the South Island in New Zealand.

The climate of the islands of Oceania is determined mainly by trade winds, so most of them receive heavy rainfall. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1,500 to 4,000 mm, although some islands (particularly due to topography and downwind areas) may have drier or wetter climates. Oceania is home to one of the wettest places on the planet: on the eastern slope of Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai, up to 11,430 mm of precipitation falls annually (the absolute maximum was reached in 1982: then 16,916 mm fell). Near the tropics average temperature is about 23 °C, at the equator - 27 °C, with little difference between the hottest and coldest months.

The climate of the Oceanian islands is also greatly influenced by such anomalies as the El Niño and La Niña currents. During El Niño, the intertropical convergence zone moves north toward the equator; during La Niña, it moves south away from the equator. In the latter case, the islands experience severe drought, while in the former, heavy rains occur.

Most of the islands of Oceania are subject to the destructive effects of natural disasters: volcanic eruptions (Hawaiian Islands, New Hebrides), earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones accompanied by typhoons and heavy rains, droughts. Many of them lead to significant material and human losses. For example, the tsunami in Papua New Guinea in July 1999 killed 2,200 people.

There are glaciers high in the mountains on the South Island of New Zealand and on the island of New Guinea, but due to global warming, their area is gradually decreasing.

Due to different climatic conditions, Oceania's soils are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which is why they retain moisture very poorly, and also contain very little organic and mineral substances with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands are usually of volcanic origin and are characterized by high fertility. On large mountainous islands there are red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils.

Large rivers are found only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island of New Guinea, which contains the largest rivers in Oceania, the Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km). The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). The rivers are fed primarily by rain, although in New Zealand and New Guinea the rivers are also fed by water from melting glaciers and snow. On atolls there are no rivers at all due to the high porosity of the soil. Instead, rainwater percolates through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. For more large islands(usually of volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.

Largest quantity lakes, including thermal ones, are located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands of Oceania, lakes are a rarity.

Oceania is included in the Paleotropical region of vegetation, with three subregions distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants in Oceania are the coconut palm and the breadfruit tree, which play an important role in the lives of local residents: the fruits are used for food, the wood is a source of heat, a building material, and copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which forms the basis of exports to the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both flora and fauna) are recorded in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while from west to east there is a decrease in the number of species, genera and families of plants.

The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunal region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand is allocated to an independent region, New Guinea - to the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most atolls have bird colonies where seabirds nest. Of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (Latin: Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (Latin: Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (Latin: Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless plume). All the islands of Oceania are home to a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.

During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.

The region contains a large number of protected areas, many of which occupy large areas. For example, the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati have been the world's largest marine reserve since January 28, 2008 (area 410,500 km²).

The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.

Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia have a mixed racial type: in their appearance, features of the Caucasian and Mongoloid races are visible, and to a lesser extent - Australoid. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maoris, Marquesans, Rapanui and others. Native languages ​​belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquesan, Rapanui and others. Characteristic features of Polynesian languages ​​are a small number of sounds, especially consonants, and an abundance of vowels.

Micronesians live in the countries of Micronesia. The largest peoples are Carolinians, Kiribatis, Marshallese, Nauru, Chamorros and others. The native languages ​​belong to the Micronesian group of the Austronesian family of languages: Kiribati, Carolinian, Kusaie, Marshallese, Nauruan and others. The Palauan and Chamorro languages ​​belong to the West Malayo-Polynesian languages, and Yapese forms a separate branch of the Oceanian languages, which also includes the Micronesian languages.

Melanesians live in the countries of Melanesia. Racial type - Australoid, with a small Mongoloid element, close to the Papuans of New Guinea. Melanesians speak Melanesian languages, but their languages, unlike Micronesian and Polynesian, do not form a separate genetic group, and the linguistic fragmentation is very great, so that people from neighboring villages may not understand each other.

Papuans inhabit the island of New Guinea and some areas of Indonesia. In terms of anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages ​​are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin creole language. According to various sources of peoples and languages, the Papuans number from 300 to 800. However, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between an individual language and a dialect.

Many languages ​​of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.

The situation of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand Maori make up up to 15% of the country's population. The share of Polynesians in the Northern Mariana Islands, located in Micronesia, is about 21.3%. In Papua New Guinea, the majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of people from other islands in the region.

In New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, the majority of the population is European, whose share is also high in New Caledonia (34%) and French Polynesia (12%). On the Fiji Islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.

Recently, the proportion of immigrants from Asia (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing in the countries of Oceania. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the share of Filipinos is 26.2%, and the Chinese are 22.1%.

The population of Oceania mainly professes Christianity, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branches.

The island of New Guinea and the nearby islands of Melanesia were supposedly settled by people from Southeast Asia who arrived by canoe approximately 30-50 thousand years ago. About 2-4 thousand years ago, most of Micronesia and Polynesia were inhabited. The colonization process ended around 1200 AD. By the beginning of the 16th century, the peoples of Oceania were experiencing a period of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society. Crafts, agriculture, and navigation actively developed.

In the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries, the period of study of Oceania by Europeans continued, who gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization proceeded very slowly, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and had a negative impact on the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never existed in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, in as a result of which a significant part of the natives died. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.

In the 18th-19th centuries, the islands of Oceania were divided between colonial powers, primarily the British Empire, Spain and France (later joined by the USA and the German Empire). Of particular interest to Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut palms for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called “blackbird hunt,” which involved recruiting islanders to work on plantations).

New Zealand became a dominion in 1907, but it did not formally become a fully independent state until 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge (“May” in Western Samoa, “Fiji Youth” in Fiji), which fought for the independence of the colonies. During World War II, Oceania was one of the theaters of war where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American forces).

After the war, there were some economic improvements in the region, but in most colonies it was lopsided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: Western Samoa gained independence in 1962, West Irian in 1963, and Nauru in 1968. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.

After gaining independence, most countries in Oceania still have serious economic, political and social problems, which they are trying to solve with the help of the world community (including the UN) and through regional cooperation. Despite the process of decolonization in the 20th century, some islands in the region still remain dependent to one degree or another: New Caledonia, French polynesia and Wallis and Futuna from France, Pitcairn Islands from Great Britain, Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau from New Zealand, a number of islands (all minor outer islands except Navassa Island) from the USA.

Most countries in Oceania have a very weak economy, which is due to several reasons: limited natural resources, remoteness from world markets for products, and a shortage of highly qualified specialists. Many states depend on financial assistance from other countries.

The basis of the economy of most countries in Oceania is agriculture (copra and palm oil production) and fishing. Among the most important agricultural crops are the coconut palm, bananas, and breadfruit. Possessing huge exclusive economic zones and not having a large fishing fleet, the governments of the countries of Oceania issue licenses for the right to catch fish to ships of other countries (mainly Japan, Taiwan, the USA), which significantly replenishes the state budget. The mining industry is most developed in Papua New Guinea, Nauru, New Caledonia, and New Zealand.

A significant part of the population is employed in the public sector. Recently, measures have been taken to develop the tourism sector of the economy.

The art of Oceania has developed a distinctive style that makes the local culture unique.

IN fine arts Among the Polynesians, the main place belongs to wood carving and sculpture. Among the Maori, carving reached a high level; they decorated boats, parts of houses, carved statues of gods and ancestors; such a statue stands in every village. The main motif of the ornament is a spiral. Stone moai statues were created on Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands. Of the crafts, the most important was the construction of boats, as they made it possible to engage in fishing and travel over long distances (in connection with this, astronomy developed among the Polynesians). Tattooing is widespread among Polynesians. The clothing used was tapa, which was made from the bark of trees of the mulberry family. Myths, legends, fairy tales, singing and dancing were developed in Polynesia. Writing was probably only on Easter Island (rongo-rongo); on other islands folklore was transmitted orally.

Singing and dancing are popular forms of art among Micronesians. Each tribe has its own myths. In the life of the islanders, the main place was occupied by ships - boats. There were different types of boats: dibenil - a sailing boat, valab - a large rowing boat. Megaliths are found on the Yap Islands. Of particular interest is Nan Madol, known as the “Venice of Micronesia.” This is a whole city on the water, in a lagoon on the island of Ponape. Stone structures were built on artificial islands.

Wood carving reached a special peak among the Melanesians. Unlike the Polynesians, the Melanesians were not so tied to the sea, they were more land dwellers. The main musical instrument is the drum, or tom-tom. The Papuans have widespread folklore, songs, dances, and myths. The songs and dances are very simple. The singing is called mun, the melody varies very little. The cult of ancestors and skulls is important. Papuans make korvars - images of ancestors. Wood carving is well developed.

Physiographic countries of Oceania

Regional landscape differences allow us to distinguish four physical-geographical countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.

Melanesia

Melanesia includes New Guinea, the archipelagos of Bismarck, Louisaida, Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Fiji and a number of small islands. The islands of Melonesia lie in the alpine geosynclinal zone and were created by mountain-building processes of the Neogene and early Quaternary periods. They are composed of crystalline intrusions and folded sedimentary deposits. The complex of crystalline rocks contains ore minerals: nickel, gold, iron ores, chromites. Oil-bearing basins are confined to sedimentary formations.

Volcanic activity continues to this day. Frequent and strong earthquakes occur.

The relief of the islands is predominantly mountainous. The islands received their modern shape in the Quaternary period; previously they were connected with each other, with Australia, and with the Malay Archipelago by land bridges along which the migration of flora and fauna took place. In this regard, the flora and fauna include many Australo-Malayan species.

Mountains rise to 2000 m and higher in New Guinea, Solomon Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago, which are united under the name of Northern Melanesia. The climate here is constantly hot and very humid; most of the islands are covered with evergreen rainforests.

The climate of Southern Melanesia is hot, seasonally humid, hylean forests cover only the windward slopes of the mountains, and savannas appear on the dry, leeward slopes.

The largest island of Melanesia and Oceania is New Guinea with an area of ​​829,300 km2. This island is located entirely in equatorial latitudes. The island's flora is rich in species and includes 6,872 plant species, of which 85% are endemic. The Sredinny Ridge stretches across the entire island, the height of which increases to the west up to Jaya Peak (5029 m). A huge amount of moisture condenses on its slopes, brought in in winter by the southeastern trade winds, and in summer by the northwestern monsoon. On high peaks Mountain precipitation falls in solid form. The snow line lies at an altitude of 4420 m. There are small glaciers on the mountain tops.

Below the eternal snow and rocky placers there are tall grass meadows with rhododendron bushes, and even lower there is a belt of mountain gils, which at an altitude of 900 m give way to the wilds of typical gils.

To the south of the Sredinny Range lies a wide lowland, at the base of which lies a crystalline basement overlain by marine and alluvial sediments.

The lowlands receive up to 4000-5000 mm of precipitation, but its southern regions are very dry. The characteristic vegetation type is savannah with tufts of tough grasses and Australian tree species - banksias, eucalyptus and acacia.

There are many reed swamps in the floodplains of the Fly and Digul rivers. Mangrove forests grow at river mouths and along low-lying banks.

New Zealand

New Zealand consists of two large islands - North and South - and a number of small ones. It occupies the southernmost position in Oceania. The islands of New Zealand extend from southwest to northeast and follow a major fault line that continues along the deep-sea Kermadec and Tonga trenches.

New Zealand structures began to form in the Upper Paleozoic. The most important mountain-building movements occurred in the Mesozoic era and in the Paleogene, after which a period of tectonic rest and peneplanation began. In the Pliocene, new folding and differential vertical movements occurred, fragmenting the ancient land and determining the modern contours of the coast.

The development of the organic world occurred mainly without replenishment from the outside. The flora of the islands consists of 74% endemic plants and is relatively poor in species. There are tree ferns (cyathea, dixonia), conifers, myrtaceae, etc. The fauna of New Zealand is also characterized by high endemism and extreme antiquity. Local mammals are represented by two species of bats and one species of rat. There are flightless (kiwi, owl parrot) and flying (nestor parrot) birds. The only representative of the most ancient reptiles (proto-lizards) - the hatteria - has survived.

The nature of the North and South Islands is diverse.

The South Island (area 150 thousand km2) has mountainous terrain. The Southern Alps stretch along the western half of the island. Their height reaches 3764 m. They have up to 50 glaciers with a total area of ​​about 1000 km2. The Otago Plateau (1200-1800 m) adjoins the mountains from the south. There are large lakes in southwest Otago. Along the western slopes of the Southern Alps there is a narrow coastal lowland, and the Canterbury coastal plains adjoin the eastern slopes.

Almost the entire South Island lies in a moderately warm, very humid climate. The average winter temperature is 5-7°C. Sometimes it drops below 0°C. Western winds predominate. In summer, the westerly circulation remains weakened. Temperatures are 14° in the south and 17°C in the north. Precipitation occurs both in winter and summer, but the maximum occurs in summer. On the lowlands, the annual precipitation is 2500 mm, on the mountain slopes - 3500 mm. The eastern slopes receive only 700 mm per year.

The rivers are full-flowing with uniform flow and fed by snow, glaciers and rain. They spread widely in spring and summer.

The western slopes of the mountains are covered with dense mixed forests, in which evergreen trees (laurel and conifers) penetrate far to the south. Above 600 m and up to 1000 m there is a belt of evergreen beech forests. Above it is a belt of low-growing hard-leaved shrubs and mountain meadows. The eastern slopes are covered with evergreen bushes and beech forests.

The North Island (area 115 thousand km2) is separated from the South Island by the Cook Strait graben. The relief is dominated by medium-altitude plateaus, with lowlands widely developed along the edges. Along east coast the Ruahine ridge stretches out. The central part of the island is occupied by a volcanic plateau, above which volcanic cones rise. Among them there are existing ones: Ruapehu - the highest in New Zealand, Tarawera. There are many lakes on the plateau, often thermal. The largest of them is Lake Taupo.

The climate of the North Island is subtropical, warm temperate, with very wet winters. In summer there is less precipitation. The vegetation is represented by mixed subtropical forests, richer in species composition than on the South Island. Thickets of evergreen shrubs dominate on lava plateaus; forests appear only on weathered lavas.

Micronesia

Micronesia includes about 1,500 islands: the Kazan, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert and Nauru archipelagos. All islands are small; the largest of them, Guam, has an area of ​​583 km2.

The Western archipelagos are located in the belt of geosynclinal structures of the Pacific Ocean floor and are the peaks of volcanoes. The relief of the islands is mountainous (height from 400 to 1000 m). The islands of eastern Micronesia are coral. They rarely rise above the water by more than 1.5 - 2.5 m. Many of them have the shape of typical atolls.

The islands lie in latitudes from equatorial to subtropical. The climate of the northern islands is as hot and humid as the southern ones. The greatest amount of precipitation (1500-2000 mm) falls on the eastern slopes of the mountainous islands, windward of the northeast trade winds. Previously, the slopes were covered with dense, moist evergreen tropical forests, but currently these forests have greatly decreased in area. The leeward slopes of the islands are occupied by grass savannas. Inland lagoons framed by mangroves.

Polynesia

Polynesia unites the islands lying generally east of the 180th meridian, between 30° N. w. and 30° S. sh.: Hawaiian, Phoenix and Tokelau archipelagos, Samoa, Cook Islands, Tubuau, Tahiti, Tuamotu, etc. The islands are the tops of basaltic volcanoes, mostly beheaded by weathering and abrasion, overlain by reef limestones. There are also coral islands - a product of the ocean, madrepore corals and calcareous algae.

The name "Polynesia", meaning many islands, was first used by Charles de Brosses in 1756, and was originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Jules Dumont D'Urville in 1831, in a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, proposed restrictions on its use, and also introduced the terms Micronesia and Melanesia. This division into three different Pacific subregions is still used today.

Geographically, Polynesia can be described as a triangle with corners at Hawaii, Aoteaora (New Zealand) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Other major island groups located within the Polynesian triangle are Samoa, Tonga, the various island chains that form the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. Niue - a rare secluded place Island state near the center of Polynesia. Island groups outside this large triangle include Tuvalu and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna. There are also small enclaves of isolated Polynesians in Papua New Guinea, Solomons and Vanuatu. Basically, however, it is an anthropological term applied to one of the three parts of Oceania (others call Micronesia and Melanesia), whose population generally belongs to the same ethnocultural family as a result of centuries of maritime movements.

Polynesia is divided into two distinct cultural groups, Eastern Polynesian and Western Polynesia. The culture of Western Polynesia is driven by its large population. It has strong institutions of marriage, and well-developed judicial, monetary and trading traditions. It includes groups of Tonga, Niue, Samoa and Polynesian areas beyond the borders. Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller islands and atolls, including the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Tuamotus, Marquesas, Hawaii and Easter Island. However, the large islands of New Zealand were first settled by East Polynesians, who adapted their culture to a non-tropical one environment. Religion, agriculture, fishing, weather forecasting, canoeing (similar to modern catamarans), construction and navigation were highly developed skills because the population of the entire island depended on them. Trade was divided into two types: luxury and household goods. Many small islands could suffer severe famine if their gardens were poisoned by salt from a hurricane's storm surge. In such cases, fishing, the primary source of protein, would not alleviate the energy loss of the food. Sailors in particular were highly respected, and each island maintained a navigation house, with a canoe building area. Polynesian settlements had two categories, villages and towns. The size of the inhabited island determined whether or not a village would be built. Large volcanic islands usually had villages divided into many zones across the island. Food and resources were more abundant and so these settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) were established so that there was no overlap between zones. Villages, on the other hand, were founded on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more houses. Typically these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and timber. However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite; large volcanic islands with fortified villages. Due to the relatively large number of competitive sects of Christian missionaries in the islands, many Polynesian groups converted to Christianity. Polynesian languages ​​are all members of the Oceanic language family, a subgroup of the Austronesian language family.

The organic world is represented by reef-loving plants and animals not only of land, but also of the sea. Along the outer edge of the atoll, seaweeds, foraminifera, sponges, sea ​​urchins and starfish, crabs and shrimp. Behind the outer graben of the atoll, on thick carbonate soils, land vegetation appears: thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs, forests of coconut palms, pandanus, banana thickets and breadfruit groves.

The largest archipelago of Polynesia is the Hawaiian Islands, stretching for 2500 km. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 24 islands with a total area of ​​16,700 km2. The largest islands are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. Volcanic activity continues only on the island of Hawaii; on other large islands it ceased at the beginning of the Quaternary period.

Most of the islands are located in a tropical climate zone and are under the continuous influence of northeastern trade winds. The amount of precipitation on the windward slopes exceeds 4000 mm, on the leeward slopes - no more than 700 mm per year. High air temperatures are typical. The northwestern islands of the archipelago lie in the subtropical zone. They are further away from the cold California Current, so they have higher average seasonal temperatures. Precipitation is cyclonic, maximum in winter. The amount of annual precipitation is about 1000 mm.

The flora of Hawaii is highly endemic (up to 93% of species) and uniform, so it is classified as a special Hawaiian subregion of the Paleotropics. It contains gymnosperms, ficus, and epiphytic orchids. Palm trees are represented by three types. The mountains are characterized by seasonally wet mixed forests up to an altitude of 700 m), permanently wet evergreen forests (up to 1200 m), and tropical mountain hylaea (up to 3000 m). Savannas do not rise on slopes higher than 300-600 m.

The islands have a very rich avifauna (67 genera). More than half lead a sedentary lifestyle and nest on islands. In addition to birds, there is one species of bat, several species of lizards, and beetles.

The current state of nature and its protection

The islands' landscapes are extremely vulnerable to human economic activity. Great harm is caused by the accidental or deliberate introduction of alien organisms - plants or animals - to the islands.

The condition of the natural environment is worsened by the irrational use of land, the cutting down of valuable tree species, the pollution of coastal water bodies and the direct destruction of the island land.

The nature of biogenic islands is the most vulnerable. The vulnerability of their flora and fauna, as well as their small volume fresh water and above-water land create great difficulties for the conservation of the natural environment.

With the rapid population growth, maintaining adequate sanitation standards on the islands is becoming a difficult task, especially since it is not easy to find a suitable place to dispose of waste and sewage.

Phosphorite mining causes great devastation on some islands. As a result of this, people are creating deserts, the restoration of which is practically inaccessible to the young states of Oceania.

Tourists, lovers of spearfishing and collectors of living souvenirs, cause great harm to the nature of the islands. Already, many states have adopted laws prohibiting the breaking of corals, collecting shells, pearling, and hunting birds and animals.

Island groups

Next are the islands and island groups, or nations or subnational territories, that have a native Polynesian culture. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the area.

American Samoa (Overseas Territory of the United States)

Anuta (in Solomon Islands)

Cook Islands (self-governing state in association with New Zealand)

Easter Island (part of Chile, named Rapa Nui in Rapa Nui)

Emai (in Vanuatu)

French Polynesia (“foreign country”, territory of France)

Hawaii (United States State)

Kapingamarangi (in the United States of Micronesia)

Mele (in Vanuatu)

New Zealand (called Aotearowa in Maori, usually associated with Australasia)

Niue (self-governing state in free association with New Zealand)

Nigeria (in Papua New Guinea)

Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)

Nikuoro (in the United States of Micronesia)

Ontong Java (in Solomon Islands)

Pileni (in Solomon Islands)

Rennell (in Solomon Islands)

Rotuma (in Fiji)

Samoa Islands (independent nation)

Sikaina (in Solomon Islands)

Country Boys Island (politically part of American Islands Samoa)

Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)

Tikopia (in Solomon Islands)

Tokelau (New Zealand overseas dependency)

Tonga (independent nation)

Tuvalu (independent nation)

Wallis and Futuna (foreign territory of France).

Sources

Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopedia, WikiPedia

oceaniasport.info – Oceania

stranymira.com – Countries

polynesia.ru – Polynesia

If you look closely at the map of the Pacific Ocean, you will notice some peculiarity in the location of the islands in the southern part of the ocean: the closer you are to the southwest, to Australia, the denser the islands cover the ocean and the larger they are in size; the further east you are from Australia and northeast, the smaller the islands and the wider they are scattered across the ocean. Taking a closer look, we will notice other features in the location of the islands: most of them, and in particular the large ones, are elongated in a certain direction, and chains of small islands stretch in the same direction, continuing each other. These lines form, as it were, wide concentric arcs, covering the Australian continent from the east and approximately parallel to the mountain range that stretches along the eastern coast of this continent. Three such concentric arcs can be outlined: the first, internal, is composed of the largest island - New Guinea (Irian), and its continuation is New Caledonia and New Zealand; the second arc is formed by the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the islands of Santa Cruz, Banks and the New Hebrides; third arc, outer and less correct, - o-va Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert, Ellis, Fiji, Tonga and Kermadec.

This arrangement of the islands is not accidental and is explained by the geological history of Oceania. These three concentric arcs of islands probably represent the remnants of the mountain ranges of an ancient continent that once occupied a much larger area than present-day Australia. The eastern, outer arc may have been the edge of this continent. Most of the islands mentioned above are formed by rocks of continental origin.

Further to the east and northeast the picture changes. We are entering here into a real oceanic expanse. Small islands, exclusively of volcanic or coral origin, do not show any connection with any continent.

Volcanic islands are mostly high and mountainous. These are the Mariana Islands and Hawaii in northern Oceania and Samoa G Tahiti, Marquesas and Tubuai in the southern part. They are rich in picturesque and varied landscapes. In the Hawaiian Islands there are active volcanoes- Mauna Loa and Kilauea. The summit of the extinct volcano Mauna Kea (4212 m) - highest point in all eastern Oceania. The crater of the extinct volcano Mauna Halealakala (on the island of Maui) is considered the largest in the world: its circumference is 45 km.

Coral islands are low-lying, they barely rise above the surface of the water. These are the islands (some of those mentioned above) Marshall, Gilbert, Ellis, Phoenix, Tokelau, Tuamotu (Paumotu) and Cook. The Tonga and Caroline groups consist of islands of both categories. Among the coral islands there are ring-shaped atolls with an internal shallow lagoon. These low-lying islands, devoid of trees, are little picturesque, and sometimes present a dull appearance. Coral polyps, the builders of these islands, cannot live at great depths; Therefore, it is suggested that the coral islands are also built on a volcanic pedestal, which gradually sank into the depths. Be that as it may, there are no traces of any ancient continent in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

The islands of Oceania are grouped into archipelagos. Within each archipelago, the distances between the islands are not great and are usually measured in tens of kilometers. The distances between archipelagos are much greater - on the order of hundreds and thousands of kilometers. 1 Therefore, the living conditions of humans on the islands of the same archipelago are for the most part homogeneous, and the connection between them is quite close. The connection between the archipelagos is much weaker and the living conditions on them are different.

However, communication even between individual archipelagos and isolated islands is partly facilitated by constant sea currents. These currents, associated with the rotation of the earth, have a latitudinal direction - along the equator from east to west, north and south of it - in the opposite direction. Currents bring pieces and whole tree trunks, fruits and seeds from island to island; There were cases when boats with their crew were carried by sea currents (or a storm) to distant islands.

Climate

Almost all the islands of Oceania are located between the tropics, therefore in a hot equatorial climate. Annual temperature fluctuations are very small - usually do not exceed 5°. But there is no particularly great, depressing heat there, since the ocean moderates the temperature. Average annual temperature ranges from +23.5° (New Caledonia, Hawaiian Islands) to +28° (Marshall Islands), the average temperature of the coldest month does not drop below + 20°. New Zealand alone, located outside the tropical zone (34 - 47° S), has different climatic conditions. Here the climate is moderately warm, even cool, and the difference between winter and summer temperatures is already quite noticeable: in Christchurch on the South Island, the average January temperature (southern summer) is +16.2°, the average July temperature (winter) is +5.5° , the difference is 10.7°. High mountains New Zealand is covered with eternal snow and glaciers.

Irrigation of the islands of Oceania is quite sufficient, even abundant, although not the same everywhere. Particularly generous tropical rains fall over the western archipelagos - over 200 cm per year; the further east you go, the fewer there are. There are different seasons - rainy and drier. Large rivers no, except for several rivers in New Guinea (Fly, Sepik) and New Zealand. On this last island The hot springs are wonderful.

On most islands the climate is quite healthy and favorable for humans. Only on the western islands are the natural conditions worse. Here, especially in New Guinea, malaria and yellow fever are rampant. On other islands, endemic diseases include leprosy and elephantiasis.

Vegetation

Most of the islands of Oceania are covered with evergreen tropical vegetation, very rich and lush on the western islands, especially New Guinea, but the further east you go, the more monotonous and sparse it is. Perhaps this is explained by the fact that only a very small part of the vegetation of Oceania has been preserved from the time when a large continuous continent is supposed to have existed here. Seeds and fruits of plants are carried by sea, wind and birds, and the vast majority of plant species are brought to the islands from outside. But there is much less chance that they would end up in this way on the small islands of eastern Oceania, located vast distances from one another.

In this sense, the distribution of palm trees is especially indicative: in Indonesia there are up to 200 species, in the Solomon Islands there are 18, and in Hawaii there are only three species. Highest value and are widespread: the coconut palm, found throughout Oceania, except for the southern part of New Zealand, and especially characteristic of the coral islands; rattan (palm vine), which provides a flexible and durable material for crafts, growing in the western part of Oceania; The sago palm, which is especially abundant in New Guinea, has the same distribution area, as does the areca palm. Pandanus and breadfruit (Artocarpus) are found almost everywhere. It is difficult to list the various types of evergreen plants: araucarias, rhododendrons, crotons, acacias, ficuses, bamboo and many others. In coastal and swampy areas, in the tidal zone, coastal mangroves are characteristic. A major role is played by cultivated plants brought by man himself: banana (Musa), papaya (melon tree, Carica papaya), root vegetables - yams (Dioscorea sativa), tarot (Colocasia antiquorum) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). One of the characteristic features of the flora of Oceania is its endemicity and “insularity”: each group of islands has its own species that are not found anywhere else, and the number of such species reaches 30% of the total number of all local plants. Some of them are very archaic, they are like living fossils flora, preserved in unique natural museums.

Typical landscape of large western islands- virgin tropical forest covering the mountain slopes and coastline, generated by a hot and humid climate. Giant trees rise to 40-60 m in height. Solid foliage, intertwining branches, climbing rattans and other vines create perpetual shade below. The trunks and branches are covered with epiphytes. This forest is damp and dark, and it is almost impossible to get through the forest without an axe. Many trees send out dozens of aerial roots and, resting them on the ground, hang in the air like giant spiders.

A completely different type of vegetation cover on the low-lying coral islands of eastern Oceania. Monotonous thickets of coconut palms and pandanus trees represent modest groves. Among the coral islands there are some completely devoid of trees and overgrown only with bushes.

In New Zealand, the vegetation is somewhat special. General character it is subtropical, but the further south you go, the fewer tropical species there are: palm trees disappear, there are no bamboos. But a huge kauri pine and tree ferns appear; New Zealand flax is typical among herbs ( Phormium tenax), giving good fiber.

Animal world

The fauna is distributed in Oceania similarly to the flora: the further west, the richer, the further to the east, the poorer. The fauna of New Guinea is the most diverse, partly similar to that of Australia. Here, in addition to the wild pig, the oviparous echidna and marsupials are found: tree kangaroos, cuscus (Phalangista), marsupial anteater, marsupial squirrel; Among placentals - a flying dog and a huge carnivorous bat. Of the birds, parrots (cockatoos), birds of paradise (more than 50 species are known), and the New Guinea ostrich-cassowary are especially interesting. There are numerous snakes, including poisonous ones. There are many different insects, among them there are very large butterflies; A particular scourge is the devouring ants and termites.

On the Bismarck Archipelago the fauna is already poorer, and further to the east it is even poorer. On the small coral islands, mammals, apart from the human-imported dog and domestic pig, are represented only by rats and bats. Birds, of course, cross the waters and are found everywhere, but the further you go to the east, the fewer of them. There are even few insects on the coral islands, and therefore few insect-pollinated flowering plants.

The fauna of New Zealand is so unique that it stands out as a special zoogeographical region. The most characteristic of it are various flightless birds, for example, the wingless kiwi, the owl parrot, etc., and in the past the giant moa, which reached a height of 4 meters; there are no snakes, crocodiles, or turtles in New Zealand; The only mammals there are rats and bats.

Marine fauna is richer and more evenly distributed. In addition to various species of fish, it should be noted the presence of marine mammals - dugongs, dolphins, sperm whales, and in more southern waters - toothless whales; There are turtles and numerous mollusks that play a major role in the economy of the population. A characteristic feature is the large sea worm palolo, which is used as food. In contrast to terrestrial fauna, marine fauna is richer just near coral islands, on shallows and in lagoons.

Population of Oceania

Man inhabits all of Oceania, right up to the extreme limits, to the most remote and small islands, and it is divided into regions with the exception of very few. The modern population of Oceania consists of two main elements: indigenous and alien. The newcomer population - immigrants from Europe, Asia and America who settled in Oceania over the past century and a half - will be discussed below. As for the indigenous population, their habitation on the islands is measured in thousands of years. Through centuries of labor and cultural activity, man has influenced the natural environment of Oceania and changed it in many ways. The flora and fauna on many islands is partly created by man.

That is why the island world of Oceania is usually divided into regions not so much according to physical and geographical characteristics, but rather according to the types of population and their culture. Oceania is usually divided into three main cultural and geographical regions: Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia (see map page 20).

Melanesia, covering the southwestern part of Oceania, is inhabited by dark-skinned Negroid peoples of the Papuan-Melanesian group, hence its name (Greek “melas” - black, “nesos” - island). It includes the islands: New Guinea with adjacent small islands, the Admiralty Islands, Bismarck, Solomon, Santa Cruz, Torres, Banks and New Hebrides, New Caledonia. The Fiji archipelago, inhabited by Melanesians, constitutes a geographical and cultural transition to Polynesia. The population of Melanesia, anthropologically quite homogeneous, is sharply divided by language into two groups: Melanesians proper and Papuans. Papuans inhabit the extreme northwestern part of Melanesia, primarily the largest island, New Guinea, except for the coastline of its eastern half, and are also interspersed in small groups here and there on other islands: Papuan tribes and languages ​​are known in New Britain and the Solomon Islands . The rest of the space is occupied by the Melanesians themselves. The difference between the languages ​​of the Papuans and Melanesians is very great. The Melanesian languages ​​are closely related to the languages ​​of the Polynesians and Micronesians and are included with them in the large Malayo-Polynesian family of languages; Papuan languages ​​are completely independent and do not show kinship with any other languages ​​of the world; Moreover, the Papuan languages ​​are very different from each other. The third element of the population of Melanesia can be considered the pygmy (short) tribes living here and there in the interior of the large islands, both among the Papuans and among the Melanesians; their relationship to both has not yet been sufficiently clarified.

The total number of the indigenous population of Melanesia in 1952 was about 2.5 million. Before the arrival of Europeans, according to rough estimates, about 2.2 million people lived there.

Polynesia occupies a much larger expanse of the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast, east and northeast of Melanesia. The word itself means “numerous islands” (Greek “polyu” - many), and in fact there are a lot of these islands and they are very diverse. Southern Polynesia is made up of the large double island of New Zealand; western - the archipelagos of Tonga, Samoa and several small islands; central and eastern - Cook Islands, Tubuai, Tahiti, Tuamotu, Marquesas and several isolated islands, including the most distant to the east small island Easter (Rapanui); Northern Polynesia consists of the Hawaiian (formerly called Sandwich) Islands. Despite the enormous distance of the islands of Polynesia from one another (between Hawaii and New Zealand 7.5 thousand km, from Tonga to Easter Island 5.8 thousand km) and despite the diversity of natural conditions, the population of Polynesia is relatively homogeneous in physical type , language and culture. What brings Polynesians together in particular is their language, which is almost the same on different islands. It is this unity of population that makes archipelagos so remote and diverse in natural conditions classified as one geographical area.

The indigenous population of Polynesia is now about 450 thousand. Before the arrival of Europeans, about 1.1 million people lived here.

Micronesia (which means “small islands”, from the Greek “micros” - small) occupies the northwestern part of Oceania, closest to the shores of Asia. It consists of the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands (Ralik - Ratak), the Caroline Islands, and their adjacent the islands of Palau (Pelau), and the Marianas (“Robbers”, according to the old name). The first two archipelagos belong to eastern Micronesia, the rest - to western Micronesia. The indigenous population of Micronesia is of mixed origin, its ancestors probably included Polynesians, Melanesians, and Indonesians. In western Micronesia, Indonesian elements are more noticeable; in eastern Micronesia, Polynesian elements are more noticeable. However, despite these local differences, the culture of the Micronesians is fundamentally homogeneous, as are their languages.