Ancient buildings, modern architecture, etc. General history of architecture
ARCHITECTURE OF MESOPOTAMIA
The people who inhabited the Tigris and Euphrates valley built temples with stepped towers, or ziggurats. Funeral structures played a much smaller role in their architecture, since the inhabitants of Mesopotamia did not associate the achievement of immortality with the preservation of the body of the deceased. There was a lot of clay in Mesopotamia, and stone and wood had to be delivered from afar, so buildings were erected mainly from brick.
The ziggurats were pyramidal in shape; they were built from sun-dried bricks; in their appearance they resembled the biblical Tower of Babel. Ziggurat, dominant temple complex, was precisely oriented to the cardinal points, however, unlike Egyptian pyramid, it had no interior spaces. There were ramps leading up to the top of the ziggurat through its seven steps; there was a sanctuary of the deity. Each step was painted a different color, and the higher the step, the brighter the color.
Palaces. The royal residences, especially the palaces of the Assyrian rulers, had a complex internal structure. The palace of Sargon II in Khorsabad was built on a fortified foundation and, along with the city walls, served as a bastion. The twenty-meter-high citadel was pierced by channels with vaulted ceilings: through them, wastewater was carried out of the city. The palace itself was one-story, with many rooms grouped around courtyards. In one part of it there were royal apartments, in the other - premises for women; The palace also housed services and a temple for the ruler. Most of the rooms were narrow, corridor-like rooms separated by thick walls. Perhaps they were covered with simple cylindrical vaults, the scope of which was small due to the low strength of the brick used in construction. The larger rooms, which served as state apartments, were close to square in plan and probably had a beamed ceiling.
The walls were decorated with stone bas-reliefs depicting the monarch in battle and hunting. The stone, delivered from afar, was used only for decoration. Multicolor fabrics served as the final touch in interior decoration. Winged bulls and lions with human heads guarded the entrance to the palace, and the cladding of colored glazed bricks sparkled in the sun. The inhabitants of Babylon used this very material to decorate the Ishtar Gate: bas-relief images of fantastic animals are presented on a bright blue background. During the Achaemenid era, the Persians borrowed this type of decoration along with winged monsters and some other elements of Mesopotamian culture. And yet, on the whole, the Assyrian palace impressed more with its size and splendor of its interiors than with the quality of its architectural form.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE AEGEAN WORLD
The existence of a great culture on the island of Crete became known only in the 19th century. The Minoan culture, named after the legendary king of Crete Minos, reached its peak in the 2nd millennium BC. The Knossos palace was not inferior in size to the palace in Khorsabad. The rectangular central courtyard is surrounded by rooms (ceremonial, residential, etc.), from which a magnificent view of the hilly landscape opens. The royal apartments are stretched along one axis and connected to each other. The palace had several floors connected by stairs. Wooden columns on stone bases tapered downwards, and ceiling beams rested on their round cushion-shaped capitals. The walls of the main rooms were covered with frescoes. The Knossos palace had a sewage system. The palace had no fortifications at all - obviously, the rulers of Crete dominated the seas and were not afraid of attack from land.
The palaces located on the mainland had a different appearance. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC. The Greeks from Mycenae began to compete with the Cretans. Echoes of this struggle can be heard both in Homer and in the myth of Theseus, who defeated the Minotaur. The Greeks crushed the Minoan kingdom and adopted much of its culture. In the palace at Tiryns there was a room for men - a megaron, which consisted of a courtyard, a portico and a main hall, as well as a similarly constructed, but more modest, female half. A pair of Cretan columns decorated the portico, and similar columns supported the roof of the main hall. Many decorative details also have their source in Cretan architecture, but there are differences. The harsher climate required that a hearth be built in the center of the megaron. In addition, on the mainland the palace was supposed to serve as a fortress. Thus, in Tiryns, walls made of huge, roughly processed stone blocks covered the perimeter of the palace. The access road led to a heavily fortified gate. In the thickness of the walls, rooms such as corridors were built, covered with false vaults, where, apparently, warehouses were located.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Representatives of other Greek tribes came to the Peloponnesian Peninsula - the Dorians, Ionians and Aeolians. The country in which they found themselves abounded in materials - clay suitable for firing, wood, but above all stone, from coarse limestone to fine-grained marble. In these territories with an indented seashore, city-states were formed that zealously defended their independence. Citizens prioritized the prosperity of the state and increasing its well-being, erecting public buildings and installing statues.
Temples. The Greeks imagined their gods as anthropomorphic beings, immortal and more powerful than ordinary men and women, but the interests, passions and weaknesses of the gods were completely “human” in nature.
Being the dwelling of the deity, the temple had to have a clear and rationally constructed form. Its sanctuary, or cella, could be entered from one of the end sides. In front of the cella there was a vestibule with a two-column portico. On the other side of the cella, this portico was balanced by another two-column portico. It was the simplest “temple in antis” (templum in antis), where the projections of the side walls (antes) protected the entrance. More complex architectural structures were the prostyle, where a portico with free-standing columns was placed in front of the temple in anta, and the amphiprostyle, in which such porticos were located at both ends. In larger temples, a colonnade was added to one of the listed architectural forms, surrounding the building on four sides.
One of the earliest temple buildings known to us was the Temple of Hera at Olympia, which had. It had 17 columns on the side facades and 6 on the end ones; The ratio of length to width in this temple was 3:1. Over time, Greek architects probably found this shape too elongated and began to reduce the aspect ratio: in the Athenian Parthenon (mid-5th century BC) it was slightly more than 2:1, with a ratio of the number of columns of 17:8. The plan of the temple thus became more compact.
Doric order. When constructing temples and colonnades, the Greeks usually used three types of combinations of load-bearing and non-supporting parts of the building - three so-called. architectural orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. In the Doric order, the columns, noticeably thinning towards the top, do not have a base and are placed directly on a stone base. Shallow grooves (flutes) run along the entire trunk of the column, emphasizing its vertical direction. Just below the capital is the most bottleneck the column trunk is a neck, which is a ring cutting through flutes. The capital consists of a cushion-shaped echinus located above the neck and a square slab - an abacus - placed on it. The architrave - the horizontal beam - the lower element of the three-part entablature, was left without decoration so that its work in the structure was more clearly expressed. Above the architrave was a frieze; its position corresponded to the level of the beams on which the roof of the temple lay. In the Doric order, the frieze is formed by alternating triglyphs - slabs corresponding to the ends of the transverse beams, and metopes – thin stone slabs that occupy the spaces between them and do not participate in the operation of the structure; It was customary to decorate metopes with sculptural reliefs. The entablature was topped with a cornice overhanging the lower parts of the building in the same way that a wooden roof was always made overhanging the building so that when it rains, water does not fall on the walls and inside the room. Above the horizontal cornice there is a triangular completion - a pediment. Each element of the temple architecture fulfills its role, which is emphasized with the help of color (horizontal and vertical elements were sometimes painted red and blue).
This system originates from wooden construction. The triglyphs protected the ends of the wooden beams, held in place by pegs driven into small shelves that were located under and above the triglyphs. Only marble architectural details and fragments have been found at the site of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, but it is known that the original columns were wooden, and there is evidence that the replacement of wood with marble was carried out gradually as the wooden parts of the building rotted and lost their strength. However, the rather heavy proportions of the most ancient marble columns that have survived to this day indicate an understanding of their role specifically in the work of the stone structure. In other words, when wooden columns were replaced with marble ones, the proportions already developed for the stone were used.
Over time, the proportions of Greek temples became more and more elegant, and generations of architects continued to improve the elements of the Doric order. Initially, the thickness of the column at the base was only four times less than its height, but by 450 BC. this ratio was already 1:5.5. This change in the proportional structure, together with the corresponding lightening of the entablature, eliminated the excessive massiveness characteristic of the most ancient buildings and gave the buildings grace and harmonious proportionality. At first, the echinus was widely spread over the trunk of the column, having a soft, somewhat sluggish outline; later, its extension became smaller, and its bend became more rounded and elastic. In the same way, every detail was polished until centuries of experimentation led to the sophistication and perfection of the Parthenon.
Ionic order. The Doric order developed in the Peloponnese and in the Greek colonies in Sicily and southern Italy. The Ionic order is most widespread in Asia Minor and on the islands Aegean Sea. The shaft of the Ionic column was originally thinner than that of the Doric column, confirming its origin in wood construction. An Ionic column has a base. The flutes are cut deeper into the trunk. Volutes protrude from both sides of the Ionic capital, reminiscent of a partially unrolled papyrus scroll shown from the end. For such a capital, the front and back sides differ from the sides, which could not but cause certain difficulties in solving the corners of the structure. In the corner capitals the Greeks placed volutes not on opposite, but on adjacent sides. As a result, the angular volute had an angular protrusion of forty-five degrees. The Ionic architrave consists of three narrow horizontal stripes, often decorated with thin low relief, and is not divided into triglyphs and metopes. The Ionic order is more elegant than the Doric and does not produce the impression of power characteristic of the latter. The Greeks considered the Doric order to be masculine and the Ionic order to be feminine
Both branches of development, Doric and Ionic, united in Athens in the 5th century. BC. Athens was located on the border between the Dorian and Ionian lands, and already at the end of the 6th century. Artists from both regions worked in the city. After the victory of the Athenians in the Greco-Persian Wars in 480 BC, under the leadership of Pericles, this city-state reached its greatest prosperity. Pericles sought to ensure the cultural and artistic leadership of Athens in the Greek world and to achieve this he undertook one of the most ambitious building programs in human history, especially considering that the then population of Athens, including slaves, numbered no more than 300,000 people.
Acropolis. The core of the building program was the Acropolis, a fortified rock outcrop. During the Greco-Persian Wars, the Persians destroyed the ancient temples located on the rock. In 447 BC Ictinus and Callicrates began to build the Parthenon on this site, which at that time had an unusually large size (3068 m) and had amazing integrity, compactness and clarity. It contained a twenty-meter statue of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin), the patroness of the city, made of gold and ivory. The proportions of the columns and the plan, the subtlety of drawing details and the nuances of the architectural solution - everything testifies to the desire of the architects to achieve harmony. Speaking of nuances, we mean, for example, the slight inclination of the columns inward, giving the silhouette a subtle pyramidal shape and creating a feeling of its almost organic growth; a subtle shift of the outer columns towards the corners, giving them additional strength and stability; finally, a slight rise in all horizontal lines from the edges of the structure to the center.
In another temple, Erechtheion, two deities were worshiped at once: the ancient god Erecheius, who, according to legend, died from the lightning of Zeus, and Athena. This is due to the unusual shape of its plan, which is a prostyle with one Ionic portico on the south side and a second, larger one on the north side. On the western side of the southern wall there is a portico of the caryatids, in which the entablature is supported by six statues of girls, placed instead of ordinary columns. The irregularity of the plan and the asymmetry of the volume of the temple are not typical for Greek architecture.
The Propylaea remained unfinished - the monumental entrance to the Acropolis, created by Mnesicles and decorated with Doric porticoes with small pavilions on the sides. Above the projection of the fortress wall, in front of the Propylaea and slightly to the right of it, there is a small amphiprostyle Ionic temple of Nike Apteros (Wingless Victory).
Corinthian order. By the end of the 5th century. BC. a third architectural order arose, Corinthian. Its columns are as graceful as those of the Ionic order, and its entablature is more magnificent. The Corinthian capital resembles an inverted bell, composed of two rows of acanthus leaves with spiraling vine tendrils at the corners. Apparently this order was first used in the temple of Apollo at Bassae. In an improved form we meet it in the round temple at Epidaurus; at the very end of the 4th century. BC. The Corinthian order was used to create the monument to Lysicrates in Athens.
Housing. About the Greek house of the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. little is known. We know that it had very modest dimensions and a simple design. Several rooms where they cooked, dined, washed and slept surrounded a courtyard through which the rooms were illuminated. In state rooms, the floors were often decorated with mosaics; utensils, especially ceramic vases, were distinguished by their exquisite forms and fine painting.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
The Roman genius was most evident in the organization of space. To do this, the Romans turned to new structures - the arch and vault. The Egyptians and Greeks also used arched structures, but did so primarily in civil and underground structures. In Mesopotamia, vaulted buildings were quite common, but the fragility of sun-dried brick prevented the increase in the size of the vaults. In Rome, huge vaults were erected from stone or, more often, from concrete; The binding agent was volcanic ash - pozzolana. Concrete was poured into wooden forms - formwork. When the concrete hardened, the forms were removed, but since their creation required considerable money and time, the optimal solution was to use the same simple structures. If an arch or vault was built in stone, it was necessary to construct temporary wooden circle structures to support the vault until the work was completed. The use of standard forms here also turned out to be more economical.
It was in engineering and construction that the Romans achieved the highest results. Roman roads penetrated the entire territory of the vast empire and were so good that they continued to serve for many centuries after the fall of Rome. Water supply to the cities of the empire was carried out through a system of aqueducts. Through them, water from distant sources came to the cities; the pipes passed through rows of long arcades, ensuring an even, gentle slope of the conduit. And now the stone arches of the Aqua Claudius aqueduct rise in the fields near Rome. In Segovia, Spain, a deep gorge is crossed by two high arcades - one on top of the other, and in southern France along the triple arcade of the Pont du Gard, built over the river stream, water flows from the mountains to the city of Nimes.
Temples. When constructing temples, the Romans used, with some modifications, the designs developed by the Greeks and Etruscans. The architectural typology of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome with the cella and the roof hanging over it, apparently, dates back to the buildings of the Etruscans. To the three Greek orders, the Romans added Tuscan, which is a somewhat simplified version of the Doric, and Composite, which combines features of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Romans also made some changes to the orders themselves, for example, bases appeared on Roman Doric columns. In general, Roman temples, rectangular in plan, are similar to Greek ones. Thus, the Temple of Fortune Virilis is a typical prostyle, and the so-called. The Carré maison in Nîmes is a pseudoperipter (a cella spans the entire width of the temple; on the side facades, Corinthian half-columns are placed close to the wall). Like many other Roman temples, the Maison Carré is raised on a platform, or podium, and can be entered by climbing the stairs only from one of the end facades.
The Pantheon has a completely different look. This temple, round in plan, is crowned with a hemispherical dome with a diameter of 43 m. From the inside, seven niches are cut into the massive walls of the cylinder; a single doorway leads inside. The temple is arranged in such a way that if you mentally continue the line of the dome downwards, you will get a ball touching the floor of the temple at its lowest point. Light enters the building through a nine-meter diameter hole at the top of the Pantheon dome. Recessed caissons cover the inner surface of the dome, and the rhythmic repetition of their rows emphasizes the logic of the concrete structure. The floor and walls are lined with slabs of colored marble. The full takeoff of the dome can be seen only in the interior, while from the outside only its very top is visible: the lower part is recessed into the thickness of the cylinder of the walls to dampen the lateral thrust. Adjacent to the cylinder is the Corinthian portico of the entrance.
Construction of forums. In Roman architecture, temples occupied a less important place than in Greek. The daily activities of the Romans took place in the government, judicial and commercial buildings of the forums. Temples and basilicas were built along the sacred road of the Roman Forum for centuries. Trajan's Forum could be accessed through a triumphal arch, behind which a vast rectangular courtyard opened up, surrounded by a colonnade. In the middle of each of the long sides of the square behind the colonnade, semicircular exedra rooms were built. The far side of the courtyard was closed by the Basilica Ulpia; in this rectangular building with exedra at both ends there was an exchange and a court. Having passed through the basilica, one could find oneself in the next courtyard, where the colossal Trajan’s Column (the only part of the entire complex that has survived to this day) and the Temple of the Divine Trajan were installed. Semicircular completion - the apse of the temple is the end point of movement along the main axis of the forum. Before us is an example of a purely Roman layout with a clearly defined system of axes.
Basilicas were covered with a trussed wooden roof or vault. The Basilica Ulpia and the Basilica Julia, built by Caesar in the Roman Forum, had rafter ceilings. The basilicas had a rectangular plan, their interior space was divided by colonnades into long naves. In them, servants of the law met with their clients, and merchants concluded deals. An example of a vaulted basilica is the Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum. Its vast interior space was covered with three cross vaults. The cross vault has a number of design advantages over other floor systems - it easily fits with other cross or cylindrical vaults; unlike a barrel vault resting on the side walls, it only needs four corner supports; If in a building covered with a cylindrical vault, light can only enter from the end sides, then a building with a cross vault allows you to organize lighting from any or even all four sides. In the Basilica of Maxentius, the cross vaults are raised high above the side naves, covered with barrel vaults. The Basilica is the largest structure in the Forum, but in its current state it is only a third of the original structure.
Theaters and amphitheatres. Among other forms of Roman architecture, amphitheaters and theaters occupied an important place. Almost 50,000 spectators could gather in the Flavian Amphitheater in the Colosseum, built near the forum, to watch the gladiator fights. Rows of spectator seats rose in steps from the oval arena, supported by a complex system of vaults; the facade, consisting of three rows of arcades, is decorated with order elements: attached columns and pilasters, the vertical rows of which are interspersed with horizontal entablatures
Baths. The abundance of water delivered to Roman cities by aqueducts contributed to the construction of luxurious baths (therms). In the thermal baths we met with friends, discussed the latest military or political news, and had a good time. The Baths of Caracalla had hot, warm and cold baths, dressing rooms, rooms for exercise and relaxation. The plan of the thermal baths is also based on a system of intersecting axes diverging from the main volume to the auxiliary buildings and inner garden. The central hall is covered with cross vaults.
Triumphal arches. Upon the return of emperors from conquests, triumphal arches were erected to commemorate their victories. The single-span Arch of Titus is placed on the Sacred Way (Via Sacra) at the entrance to the Roman Forum. Its reliefs depict the conquest of Jerusalem. The Arch of Constantine, whose central span is flanked by smaller arched openings, is located to the side of the forum. Its columns, placed on pedestals, create a rhythmic accent, but do not carry any real load.
Residential buildings. In Pompeii, which was buried under a layer of ash for many centuries, many ancient residential buildings have been preserved. In more modest houses the vestibule led to the atrium – a courtyard in the middle of which a small pool was built to collect rainwater. The courtyard porticoes led to the living quarters and dining room. Opposite the entrance, behind the atrium, there was a tablinum, the heart of the house, where the owner received close friends and where the deities of the hearth - Lares and Penates - were worshiped. In more luxurious houses there was another courtyard surrounded by a colonnade and a garden. In the Vettiev house, services and offices were located around the atrium, where the owner met with clients, and around the peristyle courtyard, which was more distant from the entrance and hidden from prying eyes, the life of the family took place. The architecture of such a house is focused on the interior space. Only the façade was decorated from the outside. Sometimes there were several small windows in it, but often there were none at all, since enough light entered the house through the atrium and peristyle courtyard. Sculpture, marble reliefs and frescoes decorated the elegant chambers, and fountains were often built in the courtyard.
Late Roman architecture. Pushing the boundaries of conquered lands, conquering Gaul, Spain, Britain, Greece, North Africa and the countries of the Middle East, the Roman legions carried with them the achievements of Roman civilization, including architectural forms characteristic of Rome. Aqueducts and temples, baths and theaters spread throughout the Mediterranean world. The era of Roman dominance lasted several centuries, but already in the 3rd century. The decline of the empire began. The character of Roman architecture also changed. Diocletian's Palace in Split on the shore Adriatic Sea Its structure resembles a Roman military camp. It was surrounded on three sides by a defensive wall with towers, and its rectangular plan was divided into four parts by streets intersecting at right angles. In the architecture of Diocletian's palace, immutable canons were violated. The columns no longer support a horizontal architrave, but an arch. Often, columns generally play a purely decorative role: they are placed on a console protruding from the wall and are no longer the power link of the structure. Many traditional details have been replaced by new, more freely interpreted elements of the classical order. This kind of transformation marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of European architecture.
EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE
In 313, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion, and the architects were faced with the task of creating a church building.
Basilicas. Of all types of buildings in Roman architecture, Christians chose the basilica building. Typically, an early Christian basilica included an atrium, in the center of which was a baptismal font. The portico, located on the opposite side of the atrium from the entrance, led to the narthex, or vestibule, which preceded the interior of the church itself - the naos. In the narthex during the service there were catechumens - people preparing to be baptized. The naos was divided by longitudinal rows of columns into an odd number of naves - most often 3 or 5. The central nave was, as a rule, higher and more spacious than the side ones. The congregation gathered in the space of the naves. At the eastern end of the main nave, on a raised platform, there was a priestly pulpit from which sermons were delivered. Behind the solea there was a semicircular apse, in the center of which there was an altar - the holy of holies of the Christian temple.
The basilica was distinguished by its extreme simplicity of form. The first church buildings had wooden rafters. Early Christian communities were poor, and in church construction they had to be content with the cheapest materials. Often, during the construction of temples, fragments of old buildings were used, so the colonnade could be composed of columns topped with different capitals. The marble floor slabs formed an ornamental pattern. Mosaics sparkled in the apse and on the walls of the church. When there was not enough money for mosaic decoration, the temple was painted with frescoes. In contrast to the richly decorated interior, the appearance of the church buildings was very modest, which distinguished them from pagan temples.
In the early basilicas of the 4th–5th centuries. the entrance was on the east side of the building, and the apse on the west. During the service, the priest, standing in front of the altar, looked east, facing the congregation. Later, the nature of the service changed, the priest and the congregation together turned their gaze to the east, and the shepherd found himself standing with his back to the congregation. In the Roman church of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, the original apse was located on the west side; later a new church was built, the apse of which was located tangentially to the old one; Subsequently, both apses were dismantled, and the old church, which turned out to be on the eastern side, became the chapel of the new one. In the Middle Ages, it became a tradition to arrange the entrance from the west, and the holy of holies - the altar - from the east.
In addition to basilicas, Christians also erected centric buildings. In this case, the altar was placed in the central part of a cruciform or circular hall surrounded by a gallery. An example of such a building is the Roman church of San Stefano Rotunda. Like the first basilicas, it is covered with a simple wooden roof. However, more organic for the centric composition is the domed ceiling, which was implemented in the mausoleum of Santa Costanza in Rome; the gallery of this building is covered with a barrel vault.
Both architectural types are common in the eastern Mediterranean, Syria and Palestine. The Temple of Simeon the Stylite in Qalaat Semana was a complex consisting of four basilicas located around an octagonal central courtyard, where the famous pillar stood. In Turmanin, the façade of the basilica was flanked by towers. The lack of wood in these places forced builders to construct ceilings from stone slabs laid on top of a structure of arches placed across the main nave.
Architecture of Byzantium. Around the end of the 8th century. East End The Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, remained the main custodian of the traditions of European civilization.
The main problem of early Byzantine architecture is usually formulated as follows: how to put the dome of the Pantheon on the Basilica of Maxentius? To cover a vast space with a dome, the Byzantines came up with the so-called. sail . The sails are triangular fragments of a spherical surface, the lower corner of which continues at the bottom with a supporting pillar, and the upper arc forms part of the circle that lay at the base of the dome. This invention, known since late antiquity, made it possible to build a basilica with one or more domes. Church of St. Sophia of Constantinople was built in 532–537 according to the design of the architects Anthimius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus. The nave of the temple is covered with a dome on sails, to which semi-domes adjoin from the east and west; on the southern and northern sides the dome rests on wide arches, part of the load is transferred to powerful buttresses attached to the wall outside. Side naves with galleries surround the central hall. As in early Christian basilicas, the splendor of the interior here contrasts sharply with the modesty of the outer walls.
The customer of the church of St. Sofia and several church buildings in Ravenna were the Emperor Justinian. In the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, the dome on sails rests on eight pillars. The central volume of the temple, which has an octagonal plan, is surrounded by vaulted galleries.
About a century and a half after its heyday under Justinian, the Eastern Church found itself the scene of iconoclastic disputes: the ban on the creation of sacred images caused enormous damage to the Byzantine fine arts: new icons were not painted, and old ones were destroyed. The situation in architecture was better (the bans did not affect it), but the general situation was not conducive to the scope of construction activity. In the 9th - first half of the 11th centuries. Under the Macedonian dynasty, an artistic revival was observed. The architectural type of the cross-domed church and, in particular, such a variety as a temple on four columns (or a temple of the inscribed cross type) have become widespread. The central dome is erected at the intersection of the arms of the cross, covered with cylindrical vaults; small cross vaults are usually installed above the corners of the square. Such buildings were usually small in size. An example of a church building of this type is given by the Temple of the Minor Metropolis in Athens (12th century). The central dome on the drum is raised high above the mass of the structure, and ribbons of reliefs and sculptural inserts enliven the surface of the outer walls.
During this era, the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice was built. His plan is the so-called. Greek cross (four-pointed, equilateral). This was the composition of the church of St. built by Justinian. Apostles in Constantinople. The interior and façade of San Marco are richly decorated with marble inlays and mosaics.
The Middle Byzantine period of history and culture ends with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders - participants in the 4th Crusade - in 1204. After this shock, Byzantium was never able to fully restore its strength, but in the 13th–14th centuries. Many churches were built in the Balkans. They are usually small in size and, with slight differences in plan, usually have a dome raised on a high drum, so that the building appears like a turret. In 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Turks and its thousand-year history ended. For a thousand years, the influence of Byzantine culture spread over a vast territory, and 1453 did not mark the moment of its death; A new period began in the history of Byzantine culture, called post-Byzantine, when artistic impulses, the source of which was once the art of Constantinople, developed in the Balkans, Cyprus, and Russia.
The Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the most ancient and powerful civilizations. She gave the world a unique culture that continues to amaze and delight to this day. Of particular interest is the architecture Ancient Rome, which was able to combine the best features of the ancient Greek and Etruscan heritage.
Features of the architecture of Ancient Rome
The architecture of Ancient Rome, as a distinctive art form, was formed in the period of the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. The ancient buildings only miraculously managed to survive to this day, despite numerous wars and natural disasters. Architectural monuments of ancient Roman architecture still captivate with their majesty and monumentality.
And this is not surprising, because it was the ancient Romans who laid the foundation new era in world architecture, having begun the construction of impressive public structures designed to a large number of of people. These include theaters and amphitheatres, markets, libraries, baths, basilicas, and temples.
Rice. 1. Therma in Ancient Rome.
When building their state, the ancient Romans used the achievements of Greek and Etruscan masters. And if the ancient Greeks were subtle connoisseurs of beauty in architecture, then the Romans showed themselves to be practical and far-sighted builders. Having borrowed useful ideas, they were able to create a unique architecture, which, with its truly colossal scope, was able to embody in stone all the power of the great empire, becoming its symbol for many centuries.
The most famous monument of ancient Roman architecture is the Colosseum. This is a classic amphitheater of impressive size, which was used for entertainment events. Gladiator fights, fierce battles of large predators and other entertainment were held in its arena. In the 3rd century AD e. The Colosseum suffered severe damage during a major fire. But it was restored and has since attracted tourists from all over the world.
Rice. 2. Colosseum.
Achievements of the architecture of Ancient Rome
In the Ancient world, the architecture of Rome had no equal. The enormous scale of construction, the variety of types of structures and compositional forms, and amazing engineering discoveries were able to exalt Ancient Rome and strengthen its power and glory.
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The most significant achievements of that period of history include:
- Perhaps the most important invention of ancient Roman architects was concrete. The new building material consisted of water, lime and crushed stone. At first it was used in the construction of roads, but thanks to its amazing strength and fire-resistant qualities, concrete took a leading place in the construction of architectural structures.
By pouring concrete into the space between two brick walls, architects achieved incredible structural stability, and thus were able to build multi-story buildings. The outside was covered with granite or marble and richly decorated with sculptural decorations.
- Aqueducts - arched bridges - are one of the important achievements of Roman architects. Subsequently, their design served as a model for the construction of railway and other transport bridges.
Rice. 3. Ancient Roman aqueducts.
- The solidity of ancient Roman architecture became possible thanks to the use of all kinds of arches, supports and curved ceilings in construction. The facades of amphitheaters and bridges were strengthened by rows of arcades - a characteristic feature of the architecture of Ancient Rome.
- Vaulted structures also became a major invention. By connecting the arches together, Roman architects were able to strengthen the ceiling structure and thus obtain a vault. By building a series of arches in the form of a closed circle, they created a dome. Subsequently, these innovations served as the basis for the development of many architectural trends.
While people involved in construction and design celebrate their professional holiday - World Architecture Day, we will present the most interesting and unusual works of modern architects and their predecessors.
Habitat 67 Quarters, Montreal
The unique residential complex was built in 1967 for the Expo exhibition. The 354 houses connected to each other are not located in a random order, but so that all apartments receive maximum sunlight. The style of this object - brutalism, by the way, became popular in the USSR.
Friedensreich Hundertwasser projects
It is very difficult to choose just one work by this iconic architect, because they are all amazing in their own way. His “fairytale” style does not fall under any of the classical concepts - the great Austrian designed “good” and even “kind” houses. Here, for example, is an ordinary residential building, which everyone simply calls the Hundertwasser house. It is not surprising that the author of such architecture always wore different socks.
Ideal Palace, France
The unremarkable town of Hautrives was made famous by the local postman at the beginning of the 20th century. Ferdinand Cheval spent 33 years building his own palace from scrap materials - stones that he collected during work. Ferdinand had absolutely no understanding of the canons of architecture and used all the styles that he could see. Therefore, in the “Ideal Palace,” as the author himself called it, there are elements from the Ancient to Gaudi.
Lotus Temple, India
In 1986, one of the most unusual in the world was built in New Delhi. The giant marble lotus leaves look like they are about to bloom. They even created almost natural conditions for the flower - the temple, like a real lotus, rises out of the water. Although it is a religious building, there are no icons, frescoes or paintings inside: these attributes are not important in the Baha'i teachings.
Cologne Cathedral, Germany
A canonical example of Gothic, known far beyond the “architectural circles”. Of course, we will not describe the numerous details of the huge building. Let's limit ourselves to one fact: in 1880, when the next stage of construction was completed, the cathedral became the tallest building on the planet for four years - 157 meters. But even today, surrounded by low-rise buildings in the center of Cologne, the cathedral still looks impressive.
Burj Khalifa, UAE
In recent decades, the title of the most tall building in the world it was literally a challenge banner: now, then Taipei, then Kuala Lumpur. Of course, the Emirates could not pass up such a competition and decided to set their own record. Along the way, “” won in more than ten nominations, for example, as the owner of the fastest elevator and the highest nightclub (on the 144th floor).)
Temple of the Dancing God, India
The famous Indian temple of Brihadeshvara, which recently celebrated its millennium, is dedicated to Shiva. In total, there are 250 statues of this god inside the temple, and they all depict different poses of magical dance. Previously, the temple was also a fortress, therefore, in addition to elegant statues, there are also serious defensive structures. The ditches and walls guard the legendary wealth that pilgrims have brought to Shiva for centuries.
Bird's Nest Stadium, Beijing
The Olympic Games are an excellent chance for architects to make their dreams come true: the authorities do not skimp on bold and expensive projects. From the 2008 Olympics they got a stadium for 80,000 people with a completely unusual shape. Although it is not even the shape that is remarkable, but the construction of giant iron beams - the airy translucent structure can withstand an eight-magnitude earthquake.
Chrysler Building, New York
One of the best examples of Art Deco and the tallest skyscraper in the mid-20th century was built by order of the Chrysler automobile company. It became the tallest thanks to the irreconcilable rivalry of two architects: the author of this building, at the last moment before the completion of construction, agreed on the installation of a 40-meter spire, thereby overtaking the new Trump Building. And the unusual arches on the facades of the upper floors imitate car rims.
Capsule house, Japan
The combination of Japanese minimalism and love for new technologies gave the world a unique project - a capsule residential building. All modules (apartments and offices) in this building are completely replaceable and are attached to the metal base with just four bolts. Despite the visual flimsiness of such a system, there have been no accidents since its construction in 1974.
Ring houses, China
Unusual round fortress houses appeared a long time ago, but they stopped building only in the 1960s. Before this, housing was built on the principle of a closed system in many areas. The lack of land and the ability to defend together pushed people to settle in communes in several such houses. And the microclimate inside protected from heat and cold.
Southernmost Orthodox Church
This building is not distinguished by its design or size, but solely by the location where it is located. Not far from the Russian Antarctic station Bellingshausen was consecrated in 2004 wooden church Holy Trinity. And the logs for the church probably traveled the longest route in the history of construction materials logistics: Altai Mountains-Kaliningrad-Antarctica.
The most secret office building, USA
The most inaccessible office building in the world is also the largest. This is the famous Pentagon - the building of the Ministry of Defense. The huge pentagonal building has 28 km of corridors, and the area of all five floors is 604,000 sq.m. This giant was built in the 1940s, so a small incident arose: there are twice as many toilets in the building as needed - separately for blacks, separately for whites. True, by the end of construction the old rules were canceled and they didn’t even have time to hang signs.
Pool in the sky, Singapore
The three towers of the Marina Bay Sands hotel support a truly unique architectural structure - a huge platform shaped like a ship. On the “deck” there is a living garden and a giant swimming pool. By the way, the entire hotel design is officially approved by Feng Shui experts.
City on the Rock, Sri Lanka
The real fortress city was built by ancient architects on the steep 300-meter cliff of Sigiriya. King Kasapa I ordered his residence to be built at such a height for protection, but he did not forget about comfort. Covered terraces, benches for relaxation, trees and even an artificial pond made Sigiriya a luxury retreat. In addition to the official historical monuments, there is also an interesting tradition, so beloved by our compatriots: starting from the 7th century, guests of the palace left inscriptions on the rocks like “Vasya was here, 879,” only in verse.
"and with the Great’s promise to donate a mug, and after discussing it, I decided to make a series of educational posts on the history of architecture. So, part 1 - architecture of the ancient world.
In the history of art, the dynamics of development of any type and genre are more often divided into time periods, because in one era many countries and societies with their own distinctive and original cultures appear, develop and die.
TO Ancient World include everything that existed from the 15th to the 1st centuries BC. This is Egypt The Ancient East(Mesopotamia, Assyria, Persia, Phenicia), India, China and Japan, Ancient civilizations of America (Toltecs, Incas, Aztecs, Mayans), Aegean (Creto-Mycenaean) and Etruscan cultures. Chronologically, both Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome can be attributed to this period. But the development of these cultures is separated into a separate historical stage - Antiquity. There will be a separate post about this period if you want.
1. Ancient East
Mesopotamia, Assyria, Persia, Phenicia. Being in a state of almost continuous warfare, including with each other, located in almost identical climatic and natural conditions, these countries have created very similar and closely intertwined cultures. Their architecture was mainly fortress-like, with heavy fortified gates, massive walls, arches and columns. The main building material was mud brick, which also served as one of the reasons for the formation of the characteristic monumental style of architecture. A stylistic feature of the construction of cities is the desire to avoid direct perspective, the use of the “broken axis” principle when creating cities with an extensive network of streets.
2. Ancient Egypt
For more than three thousand years, Egyptian architecture has been dominated by a once and for all established tradition. Modification occurs only within the framework of one style, the change in the dominant type of structures corresponds to changes in the social and political spheres of the country: in the era of the Old Kingdom these were rock (cave) tombs, in the era of the Middle Kingdom - pyramids, in the era of the New Kingdom - temples.
The pyramids represent the spirit of Egyptian culture, the belief in the afterlife and the power of the pharaoh, as well as the Egyptians' ideas about the universe.
The features of the temples are large halls, a huge number of prayer rooms and unsurpassed beauty of paintings on all surfaces, including the external walls and the ceiling, which is a symbol of the sky and is therefore painted blue and painted with golden stars. In addition, an indispensable attribute of the temple is an obelisk and a sacred lake.
Durability, monumentality and decorativeness distinguish the architecture of Ancient Egypt from other examples of architecture of that time. 
3.Ancient India
Indian architecture is unusually harmoniously connected with nature. The most ancient Indian temples were built right in caves. I already made a post about one of these. At a later time there is room for places of worship carefully chosen.
The means of artistic expression amaze with their diversity and colorfulness, reminiscent of the flourishing nature of the country. The idea of the unity of life in all its manifestations permeates philosophical teachings, aesthetics, and art. Sculptures made of stone with great skill, often reaching gigantic proportions, cover the walls of temples, attracting attention. Religious symbolism and the reflection of the life of that time in all its manifestations are manifested in every work of architecture, and sculpture and relief occupy the first place in Indian art. 
4. Ancient China and Japan
Architectural structures Ancient China differ significantly from the architectural monuments of the rest of the world as appearance, and by design. One difference is that ancient Chinese structures are dominated by wooden structures, while others architectural monuments- brick and stone. The main support of any structure is a frame made of wooden beams, internal and external walls and partitions vary as desired. Another distinctive feature of ancient Chinese architecture is the ensemble-group principle - they built not one building, but a whole complex of structures, be it a palace, a monastery or a dwelling. Scale was achieved in China by the construction of large building ensembles created from several light, skyward buildings. 
Ancient Japan
The main reference point in architecture was China, but Japanese architects always turned overseas designs into special works. Japanese architecture was mainly wooden. A variety of residential buildings, palaces and temples were erected. A characteristic feature of Japanese architecture can be considered the connection of the building with the surrounding landscape - the water surface, vegetation and relief. 
5. Ancient civilizations of America (Toltecs, Aztecs, Mayans and Incas)
The most interesting and important monuments of ancient American culture testify to the high culture of the peoples who created it. In general, they have the same character and represent a picture of the same art, but it is impossible not to distinguish between them two different degrees of development. The earlier ones include the monuments in Oaxaca, Guatemala and Yucatan, and the later, or Aztec, monuments preserved in Mexico, but it is impossible to make a more precise distinction between them by nationality and centuries.
The buildings are mostly the remains of temples or fortifications. Their construction is distinguished by massive walls, columns and pylons, but at the same time noble taste and bears the stamp of art, which has already achieved a certain development. Some of the temples were built on the upper platforms of huge stepped pyramids, the outside lined with stone blocks decorated with horizontal belts with relief geometric patterns. The overall composition is complemented by sculptural elements, specific ornaments not found anywhere else, and hieroglyphs. 
6. Aegean (Creto-Mycenaean) architecture.
The culture of the Aegean world is the island of Crete with the cities of Knossos, Phaistos, Triada; dozens of smaller islands, Mycenae, Tiryns, the shores of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor (Troy). It is the link between the early cultures of the East and antiquity and becomes the first mature European civilization in ancient history. Cretan culture was greatly influenced by the states of Asia Minor, and especially Egypt. In turn, the culture of Crete influenced Egypt during the New Kingdom, and even more significantly - on the formation of culture Ancient Greece. Cities were founded on Crete with paved roads, paved streets, bridges and aqueducts, and luxurious palaces rulers. All the buildings of the palaces, some of them two-story, were located on the sides of a large courtyard surrounded by a stone wall. The most famous is the Palace of Knossos with a huge labyrinth in which the Minotaur lived, about whom ancient Greek myths speak. 
7. Etruscan architecture
The Etruscan civilization still remains a mystery to historians - they disappeared as a nation long before our era. Smiling statues and painted tombs remain silent, like the lost cities of Crete. Of the surviving Etruscan inscriptions, most have not been deciphered, since it was not possible to accurately determine which group their language belongs to.
The Etruscans did not leave world works of art, but it was they who determined the features of Roman architecture. From the Etruscans, the Romans received high construction technology (roads, bridges, water supply), the original type of dwelling (atriunal house), the type of religious building (highlighting the main facade), and the principle of axial composition. There is a tendency to highlight the main façade. The composition develops along an axis of symmetry, internally. The temple is placed on a pedestal - a podium, a staircase on one side. Wooden columns, height 1/3 of the width of the facade. Types of columns - smooth vault, rough round base, capital with a pressed echinus, large abacus. 
Archaeological finds, as a rule, allow scientists to obtain very detailed information about the past. But it happens that scientists themselves find themselves at a dead end, because they cannot explain either the origin or purpose of artifacts. In our review of 10 amazing architectural objects found by archaeologists in different parts of the planet.
1. Templar buildings (Malta and Gozo)
The Templars lived on the islands of Malta and Gozo in the Mediterranean Sea for 1,100 years (from 4000 to 2900 BC), and then simply disappeared without a trace, leaving behind only amazing structures. As far as modern archaeologists can tell, their disappearance was not caused by invasion, famine or disease. It can be argued that these mysterious people were obsessed with building stone temple complexes - about 30 of them were found on 2 small islands. Researchers found numerous evidence of sacrifices and complex rituals in these temples, as well as an abundance of phallic symbols.
High in the mountains, in the middle of a Siberian lake in 1891, scientists discovered one of the most mysterious structures in Russia - Por-Bazhyn (which means " Clay house"). The age of this structure with an area of 7 acts is estimated at 1300 years. Despite the fact that more than a century has passed since the discovery of Por-Bazhyn, archaeologists are not one step closer to solving why such a structure was built.
3. Underground pyramids of the Etruscans (Italy)
In 2011, archaeologist Claudio Bizzarri stumbled upon Etruscan pyramids beneath the medieval Italian city of Orvieto. First, archaeologists noticed Etruscan-style steps that were carved into the wall of the wine cellar and went down. After excavations, a tunnel was discovered that led to a room with walls sloping upward. Continuing their descent, archaeologists discovered Etruscan ceramics from the 5th and 6th centuries BC, a number of other artifacts more than 3,000 years old, and about 150 inscriptions in the Etruscan language. During the excavations, it was discovered that the steps lead even lower, into another tunnel leading to another underground pyramid. Excavations are still ongoing.
4. Ancient tundra (Greenland)
Until recently, geologists believed that glaciers, when moving, play the role of a kind of skating rink that “erases” plants and soil layers from the surface. act as forces of erosion, clearing away everything they move along from plants and soil into the top layer of bedrock. But now, scientists must rethink this theory, since pristine tundra has been discovered under a 3 km thick glacier. Plants and soil have been frozen for over 2.5 million years.
5. Lost Temple of Musasir (Iraq)
In Kurdistan in northern Iraq local residents real archaeological treasures dating back to the Iron Age (more than 2,500 years ago) have recently been discovered. Quite by accident, they discovered the bases of pillars (the supposed lost temple of Musasir), as well as other artifacts, including statues of people and life-size goats. The statues are believed to have been an important part of burial rituals in the Urartu civilization. Further excavations are unsafe as the region remains littered with unexploded mines from past border conflicts.
6. Palace of the Han Dynasty (Siberia)
When Soviet workers were laying a road near the Mongolian border, they accidentally unearthed the foundations of an ancient palace in the immediate vicinity of the city of Abakan. By 1940, archaeologists had completely excavated the site, but were unable to solve the mystery of the ruins. The age of the ruins of a huge palace with an area of about 1500 square meters was determined to be 2000 years. However, the palace was built in the style of the Chinese Han dynasty, which ruled from 206 BC. to 220 AD The catch is that the palace was located directly in enemy territory controlled at the time nomadic people Xiongnu The Xiongnu raids were so constant that the Great Wall of China was built to protect against them.
7. Seven Provincial Pyramids (Egypt)
In southern Egypt near ancient settlement Edfu archaeologists have discovered a step pyramid that is several decades older than the Great Pyramid of Giza. Built 4,600 years ago, this three-stage pyramid belongs to a group of seven "provincial pyramids" that were made from sandstone blocks and clay mortar. The Edfu Pyramid is only 5 meters high, although previously its height was about 13 meters. Six of the seven pyramids are almost identical in size and do not contain internal chambers, so they were not intended to be used as tombs. Their purpose is still unknown.
8. Magical sanctuaries (Armenia)
During excavations in 2003-2011 of the Armenian fortress in the city of Gegharot, archaeologists discovered three sanctuaries, whose age is about 3,300 years. They are believed to have been used for fortune telling, and with the help of these sanctuaries local rulers predicted their future. At the center of each one-room temple was a clay basin filled with ash, as well as ceramic vessels.
9. Buddhist Temple (Bangladesh)
A recent archaeological discovery may reveal the early life of Atish Dipankar, a revered Buddhist saint who was born in Bangladesh more than 1,000 years ago. In the Munshingaj district, the ruins of a Buddhist city and temple were discovered, the age of which is about 10 centuries. Scholars believe that it was in this temple that Dipankar taught his followers before leaving for Tibet.
10. Tel Burna (Israel)
In southern Israel, archaeologists have discovered an Iron Age site and numerous artifacts that suggest Tel Burna is in fact the biblical city of Libn, one of the places where the Israelites stayed during the Exodus, when Moses led them out of Egypt. If this assumption is correct, then Tel Burna is part of the Kingdom of Judah, which also included Jerusalem.
Mysterious artifacts are found not only among architectural monuments. Today there is, at a minimum, .
