Legends of Lake Ilmen - Mollenta - Youth information portal. Legends of Lake Ilmen - Mollenta - Youth information portal Which rivers flow into Lake Ilmen

The lake appeared about 12 thousand years ago at the outer edge of the glacier and therefore often moved under pressure or with its retreat. After Ilmen took on its modern shape, the first people came here. The Ilmen Slavs finally gained a foothold on its shores, after which the name of the lake appeared in ancient chronicles. “Capturing” prehistoric geological processes, the lake later attracted the scientific interest of Lomonosov himself.

ON THE WAY “FROM VARYAGS TO THE GREEKS”

Lake Ilmen is mentioned in the “Tale of Bygone Years” (XII 8.), which tells about the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” the Lovat River flowing into the lake, the Ilmen Slavs and the city of Novgorod; “The Slavs sat near Lake Ilmen, calling themselves by their name and made a city and named Novgorod.”

Lake Ilmen is located in the north-west of the East European Plain. Ilmen is in twelfth place in terms of area among the lakes of Russia.

There are many options for the origin of the name of the lake, and none of them can be considered conclusively proven. In all ancient Russian sources known to science, the lake is referred to as Ilmer until the 16th century. It is widely believed that this name comes from the Finnish “ilm” (weather) and the Russian ending “-er”, which together means “Lake that creates weather.” Since the middle of the 16th century. the modern form of the name Ilmen is introduced, using the Proto-Slavic ending “-men”.

Science assigns the lake and Priil-men the role of a kind of “museum” that displays a series of long-term geological processes; 2.5 billion years ago a deep fault formed here, along which volcanic eruptions occurred. In the Paleozoic, the basin of the future lake was flooded by the sea, and sediments accumulated at its bottom. In the Cenozoic, huge rivers appeared here, cutting deep valleys. Modern rivers feeding Ilmen flow precisely through these valleys. At the same time, a lake appeared: its depth reached hundreds of meters. and the area was many times larger. The lake was finally formed in its current form during the Ice Age, under the influence of ice layers.

The present-day Ilmen is a shallow, swampy reservoir, with water of a yellowish tint, classified as “disappearing” as a result of the effects of siltation and drift from river sediments.

Ilmen is the only Russian reservoir in which the level difference during a flood reaches 7 meters, and the surface area immediately triples. This is explained both by the abundance of tributaries and the shallowness of the lake itself.

On the banks of the Ilmen lived representatives of different ethnic groups: the Balts close to the Lithuanians, the Baltic Finns - the Estonians, Vodians, Izhoras, Vepsians, and Chuds.

The first Slavs began to develop the banks of Ilmen in the 8th-9th centuries, and they also received the name Ilmen. Numerous remains of them have survived archaeological sites around the lake in the form of fortifications and burial mounds. In the settlement Staraya Ladoga on Volkhov (VII-VIII centuries) the foundations of extensive wooden huts were found, which indicates that the Ilmen Slavs lived large families, and iron openers indicate developed agriculture in those places. Over time, the cities of Novgorod and Staraya Russa, the chronicles mentioned legends about the “calling of the Varangians”, the campaign of Prince Oleg to Constantinople in 907 was described. Scattered settlements of the Ilmen Slavs laid the foundation of the Novgorod feudal republic.

The importance of Lake Ilmen was very great in the old days: the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” lay here: water trade route Kievan Rus, which connected Northern Rus' with Southern Russia, and the Baltic states and Scandinavia with Byzantium. The path went from the Varangian (Baltic) Sea along the Neva to Lake Ladoga, then along the river. Volkhov to Lake Ilmenskoe, from there along the Lovat River, and then merchants' dugout one-wood boats, which could accommodate up to 40 people with goods, were dragged all the way to the Dnieper.

Along the entire lake the shores are low, there are many marshy areas, mainly in the south and at the confluence of rivers, where wide mouths with named islands and numerous channels are formed. Rivers bring a lot of silt and sand into the lake, which settles at the bottom and changes the shape of the lake shores. Since ancient times, the shores of Lake Ilmen have been a populated trade and cultural Slavic center.

ON PLENTY SHORES AND RICH WATERS

The Novgorod lands, where Lake Ilmen is located, are a region of lowlands, swamps and marshy floodplain areas of many rivers, the waters of which have fed Ilmen for thousands of years.

Due to its size, Lake Ilmen received the name Slovenian Sea from the ancient Slavs. If you are in the geometric center of the lake, then it is impossible to see its shores, the surface of the lake is lost beyond the horizon, and the effect of the sea creates the sound of the surf near the high southwestern shore, especially in strong wind. The only place on the entire lake where high banks have been preserved is the area of ​​​​the village of Korostyni. where the height of the lake cliff reaches 15 m (Ilmensky Klint), from here you can observe even the most distant shores.

The ancient Slavs who lived on the banks of the Ilmen called it a “golden mine” for its rich fish stocks.

Today the lake has become fairly shallow, but there are still a lot of fish in it. The reason lies in the fact that the flow of the lake, noticeable waves and shallow depth help saturate the water with oxygen. The lake is home to about 40 species of fish: pike, perch, pike perch, asp, catfish, bream, blue bream, silver bream, burbot, ide, roach, sabrefish, tench, ruffe, smelt, bleak... Both amateurs and whole fish catch fish here artels of fishermen. Here today you can see lying on sandy shore authentic Ilmen soymas, whose design has not changed a thousand years later: a flat-bottomed, undecked vessel with a small keel 15-18 m long and a pair of short masts.

They were built on south coast Ilmenya, in the village of Ustrika. It was on such a soima that the epic merchant Sadko walked around Ilmen.

Previously, fishing was hindered modern ships, which sailed along Ilmen, but now there are very few of them left, and mostly these are tourist boats. The shores of the lake themselves are a historical landmark here: in these places, between the Yuryev Monastery and the village of Rakomo, the first Novgorod veche was assembled in 1015.

The dense forests on the banks of the Ilmen are full of game, which became especially plentiful after industrial production closed here, the population of workers' villages decreased and forest roads became overgrown. The most common species here are fox, raccoon dog, hare, squirrel, ermine, beaver, muskrat, marten, and mink. The population of brown bears, lynx, wolves, wild boars, roe deer and moose, which were on the verge of extinction, is growing. The system of dams and dams that regulated the river flow has fallen into disrepair, and in the swamps, the area of ​​​​which has increased many times, many geese, ducks, wood grouse, black grouse, hazel grouse, partridges, woodcock, snipe, and waders now live.

On the river Volkhov has a hydroelectric power station, which has carefully controlled the water level in the lake since 1926. This has to be done, since in the old days peasants used the floodplains as water meadows, and the current residents of these places laid out gardens and vegetable gardens here, and built houses. If a lot of water accumulates in lake areas, water is released to the hydroelectric power station as much as is necessary for normal operation of the station, and the level drops.

In the vicinity of the lake - two big cities: Veliky Novgorod and Staraya Russa, which rivals it in antiquity. If the first was always a princely city, then the second got rich from salt mines. Already in the 11th century. it was a rich city. True, the desire to expand salt production led to the fact that all the surrounding oak forests were converted to firewood, since the saltworks required excellent charcoal.

FUN FACTS

■ In the 19th century. A resort was created at the salt springs of Staraya Russa. To attract holidaymakers here, in 1878 the St. Petersburg merchant Vargunin built a private narrow-gauge railway. railway Novgorod - Shimsk - Staraya Russa. Later converted to a regular track, the road operated until the Great Patriotic War, when it was destroyed and remained unrepaired.

■ In the last century, the following phenomenon was observed on Lake Ilmen: bacteria living in the lake and processing rotting algae and peat simultaneously released flammable gas. In winter, fishermen took advantage of this: they made a hole in the lake, set fire to the gas released, boiled water on it and cooked fish soup. Currently, this phenomenon is no longer observed.

■ In the vicinity of Ilmen there are several trace stones: cult stones of the ancient peoples who lived on the shores of the lake. There are images on the stones, the meaning of which has been lost. Each stone has its own name (for example, “Elesina the Mother of God”), and they are considered healing because they supposedly help get rid of various ailments.

■ Ancient chronicles more than once described a strange phenomenon when the Volkhov River flowed backwards, or, as they wrote then, “to the brim.” In 1176 this phenomenon lasted for five days in a row. This is explained by the backing up of the Volkhov current by the waters of its tributaries, when the water level in Ilmen is extremely low

■ On July 14, 1471, on the left bank of the Sheloni River, which flows into Lake Ilmen, the historical Battle of Shelon took place between the Moscow army of governor Daniil Kholmsky and the Novgorod militia under the command of Dmitry Boretsky, the son of Martha Posadnitsa. The Novgorodians were defeated, the Novgorod Republic ceased to exist, Novgorod became part of Muscovy.

■ Staraya Russa is in second place (after Novgorod) in the number of birch bark documents found: 45 samples.

■ Ilmensky Klint - a cliff approx. 8 km and up to 15 m high between the villages of Korostyn and Pustoshya. It contains a wealth of geological data, being the longest exposed formation of the Devonian period on the Russian Plain. Since 2001 - on the list of specially protected natural areas.

■ The underground karst river Poneretka in the Borovichi district of the Novgorod region is the left tributary of the Meta, which flows into Lake Ilmen. - unique monument nature: it flows underground until it flows into the Meta for almost two kilometers.

■ Lake Ilmen is part of the Vyshnevolotsk water system: the oldest artificial water system in Russia. In 1703, Tsar Peter I signed a decree on the construction of the first canal of the system, which subsequently connected St. Petersburg with the regions of Central Russia and the Volga.

ATTRACTIONS

■ Novgorod State United Museum-Reserve;
■ Village of Golino (XIII century);
■ Detinets and the Sigtuna Gate (Veliky Novgorod, 15th century);
■ Rurikovo Settlement (Veliky Novgorod, 9th century);
■ Monument “Millennium of Russia” (XIX century);
■ Religious buildings: St. Sophia Cathedral (Veliky Novgorod, XI century). Yuryev Monastery (Veliky Novgorod, 12th century), Transfiguration Cathedral (Staraya Russa, 12th century), Church of the Great Martyr Mina (Staraya Russa, 14th century), Church of St. George (Staraya Russa, 15th century), Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Mother of God (Korosten village, 18th century), Resurrection Cathedral (Buregi village, 18th century), St. Nicholas Church (Buregi village, 18th century), Transfiguration Church (Gostezh village, 18th century);
■ Novgorod Museum of Folk Wooden Architecture Vitoslavlitsy (Veliky Novgorod);
■ House-Museum of F. M. Dostoevsky (Staraya Russa).

Atlas. The whole world in your hands No. 108

In the evenings the teacher liked to go alone to the sea. Children in a Russian estate were put to bed early. The younger boy, wincing, drank his milk and each time begged the teacher:

Please, Lidia Pavlovna, one sip.

Drink yourself.

For my health!..

So he, the cunning one, gave her at least six sips: for his health, for the health of his elder brother Misha, for the health of his grandfather in London and the compiler of the anthology - Ostrogorsky... For the health of the sick turkey, who sneezed under the balcony in her kennel from morning to evening . And it was impossible to offend either grandfather, or the turkey, or Ostrogorsky.

The elder Misha drank milk without tricks. Long and yellow-haired, he stretched out like a turnip in bed, quietly sorting out English children's magazines with funny penguins and hares on the blanket and quietly asking:

Back to the sea?

Yes, buddy.

Think?

Lydia Pavlovna nodded her head, smiling.

Every evening?

He shrugged his shoulders in surprise. But by the way, doesn’t he have his own secrets, doesn’t he “think” himself, stretched out in bed and pretending to close his eyes so that adults don’t pester: “Are you awake, Misha? Sleep! Need sleep…"

Lydia Pavlovna stood up, shook Misha’s left little finger with the little finger of her left hand, as they always said goodbye, and went to the sea.

* * *

On this deserted night, the full, radiant moon, like the mercury sun of the night, flooded the quiet bay. In Paris, you don’t even know whether the moon is in the sky today, or whether an illuminated advertisement - Diana shoe polish - is looming in the distance above the street. Who is there in Paris raising their head to the sky? Cats on the roofs, five or six eccentric astronomers and a drunk passer-by on the outskirts, helplessly hugging a street lamp... The rest have neither the moon nor the sky. And they are hidden - the clouds, the Milky Way, the stars and the month - somewhere above the houses so skillfully that only by looking at the calendar you know whether there is a full moon above today, or a dull, blue darkness...

But here by the bay... Lydia Pavlovna sat on a palm tree, thrown out by the sea, stroked the rough bark clogged with salt with her hand and looked. I rested deeply, to the very bottom of my soul, as I had not rested for many years. She remembered for a long time, going over in her memory year after year, loss after loss, when was the last time she was so thoughtlessly and simply happy? Perhaps just before the war, on one of the distant lines Vasilyevsky Island, at the cool night window, when the lunar flood was pouring over the sleepy roofs, and funny school joy was tumbling in my head and sticking out its tongue: “To hell, to hell, to hell!” Last State exam was passed!.."

Who knows, maybe happiness is deep rest, nothing more. Straightened shoulders, freely thinking about God knows what, eyes, lunar fluttering on the hands.

And Lidia Pavlovna was also pleased, pleased and embarrassed that here for the first time the label “emigrant” fell off her. In the city it will stick again by itself. Let be. But here... Whose sky? Whose moon? Whose wind? Whose waves hiss at your feet? French or Russian? Draws means hers too. And at that hour, when in the depths of the valley, at the foot of the hills along the entire coast, local farmers, old women, mules and chickens slept like stones in stone sheds under wide palm trees and fig trees, was she not the only one awake, was she the only one who was shining on the moonlit road... Whose lunar road is Russian, French? Draw.

The teacher stood up and turned around. Behind him, the estate's rough mongrel sighed and warmly extended his paw, as if for a handshake. The dog smiled, by God, he smiled at the gray-haired stranger Russian woman with a wide canine smile and quite clearly with his simple facial expressions tried to explain:

I'll lie next to you. Can? I like you. It's cool here near the water, and there are too many fleas in the estate. And you have such fragrant, warm hands... Is it possible?

Lydia Pavlovna patted her silky drooping ear in a friendly manner and smiled.

So, it turns out that she is not the only one who can’t sleep that night. Another lunar dreamer showed up - with a tail.

Bending over the blackened, charred mouth of an old fire at her feet, the Russian teacher used a stick to scrape into a pile brushwood, pine branches half-buried with sand, bark and cones, a piece of tarred boat keel... She sprinkled long pine needles over the prickly mound and took out matches from her purse.

The dog stood up, shook sand from his fur coat and carefully turned his head. Now a yellowish whisk will flare up - fire. A gray, smoky beard will curl up. Sparks will fly, shooting and snorting. A visiting woman will sit by the fire and clasp her knees with her hands... Maybe she will lean her head against it, look at the fire, yawn sweetly and smell the resinous, iridescent warmth.

* * *

More than one dog was attracted by the fire and the cozy orange circle around the crackling fire. A lanky figure, a long-legged astrolabe in a beret, separated itself from the dark stones by the water, where the boathouses stood white in the lunar limestone in a semicircle.

The dog didn't move. He knows: this is a French guest, a visiting gardener. Lives on a neighboring farm. He is indifferent to dogs, just as dogs are to him. Long, like a folding ladder that is placed under peach trees in the fall. Everything rushes along the very edge of the water from the cape to the villa on the mountain. Wherever he sees a man on the sand, he plops down next to him and begins, pointing his hand in the air, babbling like a shirt in the wind... In his bosom there are always fallen figs, which he picks up along all the roads. He takes it out, smells it and eats it. And there are thorns in his hair, because he sleeps on compressed hay in the barn.

The dog was not mistaken. The twenty-year-old giraffe gardener sank down on the sand opposite the teacher, nodded to her in a friendly manner and began to rake brushwood into the fire with his fork-shaped hands.

The yellow panicle, crackling and smoking, rushed upward. And the lunar semicircle of water and beach became even lighter and more transparent, the wall of the coastal giant pines became blacker and more severe. The dog moved away dissatisfied: it’s already hot, why throw it up again?

And the eccentric, attracted by the fire, stretched out on the sand, almost sticking his mouth into the very fire, and, continuing the conversation the day before yesterday, waved his paw in front of his nose, as if it were dislocated.

See, the window above the barn is lit... This is the old walrus Falias sitting under his roof and leafing through the 1920 calendar that I once gave him. Skin diseases in canaries and the cradle of crowned heads with pictures. He Houses . He throws his fishing rod out the window, catches a dozen sea ruffs for bouillabaisse, and is satisfied. The pine tree in front of the door is older than him. And above the door made of seashells is laid out: Falias . You understand? And the windows of that villa over there are dark. I told you, madam. This is our former villa. I was born in it. Do you understand? Born, grew up, played with my brothers. Pines, sea and sunset were our toys. We caught centipedes under rocks and put them in fondant jars. In the garden above the sea, a grotto was built with my hands: my brother was Friday, I was Robinson... We splashed on the water from morning to sunset, caught and sucked sea ​​urchins, swam to that distant stone... Here is my homeland. Do you understand what the homeland is, madam? And three years ago - I already told you - my father sold our house for debts. I sold it to an old shopkeeper in Borma, who needs this villa as much as this dog needs a top hat.

The mongrel by the fire grumbled displeasedly and moved away.

During the autumn months our villa is rented out to some Dutch artist. I hate him, madam, I saw him... Red and stupid. He draws the sea and comes out with lemonade. He sleeps on the bed on which I was born, and in my grotto he has a warehouse of empty beer bottles... I come here every summer, when the house is still empty, for two weeks. I'm checking to see if our nest is intact. During the day I wander below the stones and look at our blind windows. In the evenings I climb over the fence and sit in our garden on a bench that my father made. The pillar with the sundial was crooked. I straightened it out. I tied up the mimosa, broken by the wind... And now you see how I’m dressed? Like a garden scarecrow. I don't even drink cider, I don't smoke. Every cigarette is an extra nail in our fence. I work in horticulture near Paris, I told you. I work like a mule... And I save every sou. A year, two, four... Our house will return to us! How do you think? Surely the shopkeeper will sell it to me again? Why does he need it? I know land prices are rising... Do you think I can't keep up? But the shopkeeper is a very decent person and won’t choke me. Borm is a remote town, not all people there have become dogs yet... What do you think, madam?

The dog, who had been listening attentively to the young gardener, raised his ear ironically.

Lydia Pavlovna looked at the fire and, listening to the strange outpourings of the man lying by the fire, shook her head sympathetically. She consoled him: of course, the shopkeeper would willingly sell the villa to the son of the former owner. Perhaps he will agree to be paid in installments... Life is all ahead, the homeland is a blooming garden, the big homeland is France, and the small one is Provence...

She consoled and grinned at her Russian, hidden thoughts, which she had long been accustomed to hiding from everyone.

The giraffe boy fell silent. Squatted down. He tossed the brightly smoldering coals in his hands... Then he stood up, threw sand on the dying fire, nodded his head and, walking widely, dissolved in the distance in the milk of the moon.

Lydia Pavlovna walked through the prickly heather and juniper thickets to the estate. Behind her, step by step, faithfully following on her heels, is the dog.

The winding ruts of the road leading to the house sparkled in the pines... This eccentric complained to her. To her! A migratory stray bird that flew into his land from a Russian fire... Well. She consoled him as best she could.

She shook herself vigorously. No need, no need. Moon, sea, silence. And deep rest to the very bottom of the soul. Nothing else.

On the asphalt terrace near the house, wide lunar canvases glowed blue. Water splashed loudly from the tap. A fat toad, catching cold drops under the tap, frightenedly climbing along the wall, hurried with all its might to the corner of the house into the darkness of shaggy geraniums. She was afraid of Lydia Pavlovna. She was completely in vain to be afraid, because the teacher, having filled the saucer with water, herself took it to the corner of the house so that the ugly night creature could drink and calm down.

Silently gliding with a saucer under the window of the children's room, Lydia Pavlovna heard the older student quietly call her by name.

What is it, Misha, that you are still not sleeping?

Not sleeping. What are you doing?

I'm bringing a drink to the toad.

Is it good by the sea?

Wonderful.

Did the giraffe complain again?

Complained. Speak more quietly, otherwise you'll wake your brother.

Wake you up, of course! At least tickle him under the armpits with a toothbrush...

A thin child’s paw suddenly stuck out of the window and slyly and affectionately tugged at the teacher’s shoulder.

Ay!

Are you scared?

But the dog pushed Lydia Pavlovna under the knee with its snout from behind. Will! What is it? After all, it's time to sleep. After all, she, the dog, must accompany the teacher to the upper white house.

Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? List the answer numbers in ascending order.

1) The feeling of a holiday sometimes comes from the most insignificant details.

2) A person’s absorption only in work and life in the city prevents him from fully experiencing the joy of life.

3) A person’s good mood is unlikely to lift the mood of those around him.

4) Family and caring for loved ones fill a person’s life with joy.

5) Newspapers brought relief to the hero and made him feel better.

Explanation.

Wed. sentences 42-43: (42) Not only me and the neighbors, but, it seems, the whole carriage was listening to the girl’s happy story about New Year’s gifts. (43) Probably, everyone, like me, receded and forgot the unsweetened things of the day, but woke up and came up with something else, because really New Year close...This means that the 3-assumption is incorrect.

Proposition 16 just denies that there are positive emotions in newspapers, therefore 5 is incorrect.

Answer: 124

Answer: 124

Relevance: 2016-2017

Difficulty: normal

Which of the following statements are true? List the answer numbers in ascending order.

1) Sentences 14−15 present the narrative.

2) Proposition 43 presents a reasoning.

3) Sentence 45 provides a description.

4) Sentence 47 contains a descriptive fragment.

5) Sentences 7-12 present the narrative.

Explanation.

The first statement is correct: sentences 14−15 present a narrative.

The second statement is correct: the 43rd sentence contains reasoning.

The third statement is correct: in the 45th sentence there is a description.

The fourth statement is correct: sentence 47 contains a descriptive element.

The fifth statement is incorrect: sentences 7-12 contain a narrative with elements of reasoning.

Answer: 1234

Answer: 1234

Relevance: 2016-2017

Difficulty: normal

From sentence 44, write down a phraseological unit that means “in high spirits, calmly, without fear.”

Explanation.

In sentence 44, the phrase “with a light heart” meets the requirement.

Answer: with a light heart

Answer: with a light heart

Relevance: 2016-2017

Difficulty: normal

Yulia Kosykh (Magnitogorsk) 01.11.2015 17:17

Tatiana Statsenko

In the Unified State Examination forms, words are written without spaces.

Oleg Strelets 14.11.2015 19:06

Is it considered an error to write "ё" as "e"?

Tatyana Yudina

Yes, it counts.

From sentences 5−8, write down a word that is formed in a suffixless way (using a zero suffix).

Explanation.

The word TRANSITION is formed in a suffixless way from the verb TRANSITION.

Answer: transitions

Tatyana Yudina

You have made the right chain. Word shinesь itself was formed from the word light using a suffix AND. That's why it doesn't fit.

Words formed without a suffix have the following meaning: Tan formed as a result of the action sunbathe , transition as a result of performing an action go over and the like. And here light not as a result of performing an action shine.

Among sentences 43−48, find one(s) that is related to the previous one using a conjunction and a personal pronoun. Write the number(s) of this sentence(s).

(46) Thanks to that one girl, which was carried away by the train. (47) A to help to her- a clear crimson sunset over black spruce trees.

The personal pronoun EY correlates with the word “girl” from the previous sentence.

Answer: 47

Rule: Task 25. Means of communication of sentences in the text

MEANS OF CONNECTING SENTENCES IN THE TEXT

Several sentences connected into a whole by theme and main idea are called text (from the Latin textum - fabric, connection, connection).

Obviously, all sentences separated by a period are not isolated from each other. There is a semantic connection between two adjacent sentences of a text, and not only sentences located next to each other can be related, but also those separated from each other by one or more sentences. The semantic relations between sentences are different: the content of one sentence can be contrasted with the content of another; the contents of two or more sentences can be compared with one another; the content of the second sentence may reveal the meaning of the first or clarify one of its members, and the content of the third - the meaning of the second, etc. The purpose of task 23 is to determine the type of connection between sentences.

The task could be worded like this:

Among sentences 11-18, find one(s) that is related to the previous one using a demonstrative pronoun, adverb and cognates. Write the number(s) of the offer(s)

Or: Determine the type of connection between sentences 12 and 13.

Remember that the previous one is ONE ABOVE. Thus, if the interval 11-18 is indicated, then the required sentence is within the limits indicated in the task, and answer 11 may be correct if this sentence is related to the 10th topic indicated in the task. There may be 1 or more answers. Point for successfully completing the task - 1.

Let's move on to the theoretical part.

Most often we use this model of text construction: each sentence is linked to the next one, this is called a chain link. (We will talk about parallel communication below). We speak and write, we combine independent sentences into text using simple rules. Here's the gist: two adjacent sentences must be about the same subject.

All types of communication are usually divided into lexical, morphological and syntactic. As a rule, when connecting sentences into a text, they can be used several types of communication at the same time. This greatly facilitates the search for the desired sentence in the specified fragment. Let us dwell in detail on each of the types.

23.1. Communication using lexical means.

1. Words from one thematic group.

Words of the same thematic group are words that have a common lexical meaning and denote similar, but not identical concepts.

Example words: 1) Forest, path, trees; 2) buildings, streets, sidewalks, squares; 3) water, fish, waves; hospital, nurses, emergency room, ward

Water was clean and transparent. Waves They ran ashore slowly and silently.

2. Generic words.

Generic words are words connected by the relation genus - species: genus is a broader concept, species is a narrower one.

Example words: Chamomile - flower; birch - tree; car - transport and so on.

Example sentences: It was still growing under the window birch. I have so many memories associated with this tree...

Field daisies are becoming rare. But this is unpretentious flower.

3 Lexical repetition

Lexical repetition is the repetition of the same word in the same word form.

The closest connection of sentences is expressed primarily in repetition. The repetition of one or another member of a sentence is the main feature of a chain connection. For example, in sentences Behind the garden there was a forest. The forest was deaf and neglected the connection is built according to the “subject - subject” model, that is, the subject named at the end of the first sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next; in sentences Physics is a science. Science must use the dialectical method- “model predicate - subject”; in the example The boat moored to the shore. The shore was strewn with small pebbles- model “circumstance - subject” and so on. But if in the first two examples the words forest and science stand in each of the adjacent sentences in the same case, then the word shore has different forms. Lexical repetition in Unified State Examination tasks will be considered the repetition of a word in the same word form, used to enhance the impact on the reader.

In texts of artistic and journalistic styles, the chain connection through lexical repetition often has an expressive, emotional character, especially when the repetition is at the junction of sentences:

Aral disappears from the map of the Fatherland sea.

Whole sea!

The use of repetition here is used to enhance the impact on the reader.

Let's look at examples. We are not yet taking additional means of communication into account; we are looking only at lexical repetition.

(36) I heard a very brave man who went through the war once say: “ It was scary, very scary." (37) He spoke the truth: he it was scary.

(15) As a teacher, I had the opportunity to meet young people yearning for a clear and precise answer to the question about higher values life. (16) 0 values, allowing you to distinguish good from evil and choose the best and most worthy.

note: different forms of words refer to a different type of connection. For more information about the difference, see the paragraph on word forms.

4 Similar words

Cognates are words with the same root and common meaning.

Example words: Homeland, be born, birth, generation; tear, break, burst

Example sentences: I'm lucky be born healthy and strong. The story of my birth unremarkable.

Although I understood that a relationship was necessary break, but couldn't do it myself. This gap would be very painful for both of us.

5 Synonyms

Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are close in meaning.

Example words: be bored, frown, be sad; fun, joy, jubilation

Example sentences: In parting she said that will miss you. I knew that too I'll be sad from our walks and conversations.

Joy grabbed me, picked me up and carried me... Jubilation there seemed to be no boundaries: Lina answered, finally answered!

It should be noted that synonyms are difficult to find in the text if you need to look for connections only using synonyms. But, as a rule, along with this method of communication, others are also used. So, in example 1 there is a conjunction Same , this connection will be discussed below.

6 Contextual synonyms

Contextual synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are similar in meaning only in a given context, since they relate to the same object (feature, action).

Example words: kitten, poor fellow, naughty; girl, student, beauty

Example sentences: Kitty has been living with us for quite some time. My husband took it off poor fellow from the tree where he climbed to escape the dogs.

I guessed that she student. Young woman continued to remain silent, despite all efforts on my part to get her to talk.

These words are even more difficult to find in the text: after all, the author makes them synonyms. But along with this method of communication, others are also used, which makes the search easier.

7 Antonyms

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings.

Example words: laughter, tears; hot Cold

Example sentences: I pretended that I liked this joke and squeezed out something like laughter. But tears They choked me, and I quickly left the room.

Her words were hot and burned. Eyes chilled cold. I felt like I was under a contrast shower...

8 Contextual antonyms

Contextual antonyms are words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings only in a given context.

Example words: mouse - lion; home - work green - ripe

Example sentences: On work this man was gray with the mouse. At home woke up in it a lion.

Ripe The berries can be safely used to make jam. And here green It’s better not to put them in, they are usually bitter and can spoil the taste.

We draw attention to the non-random coincidence of terms(synonyms, antonyms, including contextual ones) in this task and tasks 22 and 24: this is one and the same lexical phenomenon, but viewed from a different angle. Lexical means can serve to connect two adjacent sentences, or they may not be a connecting link. At the same time, they will always be a means of expression, that is, they have every chance of being the object of tasks 22 and 24. Therefore, advice: when completing task 23, pay attention to these tasks. You will learn more theoretical material about lexical means from the reference rule for task 24.

23.2. Communication using morphological means

Along with lexical means of communication, morphological ones are also used.

1. Pronoun

A pronoun connection is a connection in which ONE word or SEVERAL words from the previous sentence are replaced by a pronoun. To see such a connection, you need to know what a pronoun is and what categories of meaning there are.

What you need to know:

Pronouns are words that are used instead of a name (noun, adjective, numeral), denote persons, indicate objects, characteristics of objects, the number of objects, without naming them specifically.

Based on their meaning and grammatical features, nine categories of pronouns are distinguished:

1) personal (I, we; you, you; he, she, it; they);

2) returnable (self);

3) possessive (my, yours, ours, yours, yours); used as possessives also forms of personal: his (jacket), her work),their (merit).

4) demonstrative (this, that, such, such, such, so much);

5) definitive(himself, most, all, everyone, each, other);

6) relative (who, what, which, which, which, how many, whose);

7) interrogative (who? what? which? whose? which? how many? where? when? where? from where? why? why? what?);

8) negative (nobody, nothing, nobody);

9) indefinite (someone, something, someone, anyone, anyone, someone).

Do not forget that pronouns change by case, therefore, “you”, “me”, “about us”, “about them”, “no one”, “everyone” are forms of pronouns.

As a rule, the task indicates WHAT category the pronoun should be, but this is not necessary if in the specified period there are no other pronouns that act as LINKING elements. You need to clearly understand that NOT EVERY pronoun that appears in the text is a connecting link.

Let's look at the examples and determine how sentences 1 and 2 are related; 2 and 3.

1) Our school has recently been renovated. 2) I finished it many years ago, but sometimes I went in and wandered around the school floors. 3) Now they are some strangers, different, not mine....

There are two pronouns in the second sentence, both personal, I And her. Which one is the one paperclip, which connects the first and second sentence? If it's a pronoun I, what it is replaced in sentence 1? Nothing. What replaces the pronoun? her? Word " school" from the first sentence. We conclude: connection using a personal pronoun her.

There are three pronouns in the third sentence: they are somehow mine. The second is connected only by a pronoun They(=floors from the second sentence). Rest do not correlate in any way with the words of the second sentence and do not replace anything. Conclusion: the second sentence connects the third with the pronoun They.

What is the practical importance of understanding this method of communication? The fact is that pronouns can and should be used instead of nouns, adjectives and numerals. Use, but not abuse, since the abundance of words “he”, “his”, “their” sometimes leads to misunderstanding and confusion.

2. Adverb

Communication using adverbs is a connection, the features of which depend on the meaning of the adverb.

To see such a connection, you need to know what an adverb is and what categories of meaning there are.

Adverbs are unchangeable words that denote an action and refer to a verb.

Adverbs of the following meanings can be used as means of communication:

Time and space: below, on the left, next to, at the beginning, long ago and the like.

Example sentences: We got to work. At the beginning it was hard: I couldn’t work as a team, I had no ideas. After got involved, felt their strength and even got excited.note: Sentences 2 and 3 are related to sentence 1 using the indicated adverbs. This type of connection is called parallel connection.

We climbed to the very top of the mountain. Around There were only the treetops of us. Near The clouds floated with us. A similar example of a parallel connection: 2 and 3 are connected to 1 using the indicated adverbs.

Demonstrative adverbs. (They are sometimes called pronominal adverbs, since they do not name how or where the action takes place, but only point to it): there, here, there, then, from there, because, so and the like.

Example sentences: Last summer I was on holiday in one of the sanatoriums in Belarus. From there It was almost impossible to make a call, let alone surf the Internet. The adverb “from there” replaces the whole phrase.

Life went on as usual: I studied, my mother and father worked, my sister got married and left with her husband. So three years have passed. The adverb “so” summarizes the entire content of the previous sentence.

It is possible to use other categories of adverbs, for example, negative: B school and university I didn’t have good relationships with my peers. Yes and nowhere did not fold; however, I didn’t suffer from this, I had a family, I had brothers, they replaced my friends.

3. Union

Communication using conjunctions is the most common type of connection, thanks to which various relationships arise between sentences related to the meaning of the conjunction.

Communication using coordinating conjunctions: but, and, and, but, also, or, however and others. The assignment may or may not indicate the type of union. Therefore, the material on alliances should be repeated.

More details about coordinating conjunctions are described in a special section.

Example sentences: By the end of the day off we were incredibly tired. But the mood was amazing! Communication using the adversative conjunction “but”.

It's always been like this... Or that's how it seemed to me...Connection using the disjunctive conjunction “or”.

We draw attention to the fact that very rarely only one conjunction is involved in the formation of a connection: as a rule, lexical means of communication are used simultaneously.

Communication using subordinating conjunctions: because, so. A very atypical case, since subordinating conjunctions connect sentences within a complex sentence. In our opinion, with such a connection there is a deliberate break in the structure of a complex sentence.

Example sentences: I was in complete despair... For I didn’t know what to do, where to go and, most importantly, who to turn to for help. The conjunction for has the meaning because, because, indicates the reason for the hero’s condition.

I didn’t pass the exams, I didn’t go to college, I couldn’t ask for help from my parents and I wouldn’t do it. So There was only one thing left to do: find a job. The conjunction “so” has the meaning of consequence.

4. Particles

Particle Communication always accompanies other types of communication.

Particles after all, and only, here, there, only, even, same add additional shades to the proposal.

Example sentences: Call your parents, talk to them. After all It's so simple and at the same time difficult - to love....

Everyone in the house was already asleep. AND only Grandma muttered quietly: she always read prayers before going to bed, asking the heavenly forces for a better life for us.

After my husband left, my soul became empty and my house deserted. Even the cat, who usually rushed like a meteor around the apartment, just yawns sleepily and keeps trying to climb into my arms. Here whose arms would I lean on...Please note that connecting particles come at the beginning of the sentence.

5. Word forms

Communication using word form is that in adjacent sentences the same word is used in different

• if this noun - number and case
• If adjective - gender, number and case
• If pronoun - gender, number and case depending on the category
• If verb in person (gender), number, tense

Verbs and participles, verbs and gerunds are considered different words.

Example sentences: Noise gradually increased. From this growing noise I felt uneasy.

I knew my son captain. With myself captain fate did not bring me together, but I knew that it was only a matter of time.

note: the assignment may say “word forms”, and then it is ONE word in different forms;

“forms of words” - and these are already two words repeated in adjacent sentences.

There is a particular difficulty in the difference between word forms and lexical repetition.

Information for teachers.

Let's consider as an example the most difficult task of the real Unified State Exam 2016. Here is the full fragment published on the FIPI website in the “Guidelines for Teachers (2016)”

Difficulties for examinees in completing task 23 were caused by cases where the task condition required distinguishing between the form of a word and lexical repetition as a means of connecting sentences in the text. In these cases, when analyzing language material, students should pay attention to the fact that lexical repetition involves the repetition of a lexical unit with a special stylistic task.

Here is the condition of task 23 and a fragment of the text of one of the versions of the Unified State Exam 2016:

“Among sentences 8–18, find one that is related to the previous one using lexical repetition. Write the number of this offer."

Below is the beginning of the text given for analysis.

- (7) What kind of an artist are you when you don’t love your native land, eccentric!

(8) Maybe that’s why Berg wasn’t good at landscapes. (9) He preferred a portrait, a poster. (10) He tried to find the style of his time, but these attempts were full of failures and ambiguities.

(11) One day Berg received a letter from the artist Yartsev. (12) He called him to come to the Murom forests, where he spent the summer.

(13) August was hot and windless. (14) Yartsev lived far from the deserted station, in the forest, on the shore deep lake With black water. (15) He rented a hut from a forester. (16) Berg was driven to the lake by the forester’s son Vanya Zotov, a stooped and shy boy. (17) Berg lived on the lake for about a month. (18) He was not going to work and did not take oil paints with him.

Proposition 15 is related to Proposition 14 by personal pronoun "He"(Yartsev).

Proposition 16 is related to Proposition 15 by word forms "forester": prepositional case form, controlled by a verb, and non-prepositional form, controlled by a noun. These word forms express different meanings: the meaning of object and the meaning of belonging, and the use of the word forms in question does not carry a stylistic load.

Proposition 17 is related to sentence 16 by word forms (“on the lake - to the lake”; "Berga - Berg").

Proposition 18 is related to the previous one by personal pronoun "he"(Berg).

The correct answer in task 23 of this option is 10. It is sentence 10 of the text that is connected with the previous one (sentence 9) using lexical repetition (the word “he”).

It should be noted that there is no consensus among the authors of various manuals, What is considered a lexical repetition - the same word in different cases (persons, numbers) or in the same one. The authors of the books of the publishing house “National Education”, “Exam”, “Legion” (authors Tsybulko I.P., Vasilyev I.P., Gosteva Yu.N., Senina N.A.) do not give a single example in which the words in various forms would be considered lexical repetition.

At the same time, very complex cases in which words in different cases have the same form are treated differently in the manuals. The author of the books N.A. Senina sees this as a form of the word. I.P. Tsybulko (based on materials from a 2017 book) sees lexical repetition. So, in sentences like I saw the sea in a dream. The sea was calling me the word “sea” has different cases, but at the same time it undoubtedly has the same stylistic task that I.P. writes about. Tsybulko. Without delving into the linguistic solution to this issue, we will outline the position of RESHUEGE and give recommendations.

1. All obviously non-matching forms are word forms, not lexical repetition. Please note that we are talking about the same linguistic phenomenon as in task 24. And in 24, lexical repetitions are only repeated words in the same forms.

2. There will be no matching forms in the tasks on RESHUEGE: if the linguist specialists themselves cannot figure it out, then school graduates cannot do it.

3. If you come across tasks with similar difficulties during the exam, we look at those additional means of communication that will help you make your choice. After all, the compilers of KIMs may have their own, separate opinion. Unfortunately, this may be the case.

23.3 Syntactic means.

Introductory words

Communication with the help of introductory words accompanies and complements any other connection, adding shades of meaning characteristic of introductory words.

Of course, you need to know which words are introductory.

He was hired. Unfortunately, Anton was too ambitious. On the one side, the company needed such individuals, on the other hand, he was not inferior to anyone or anything, if something was, as he said, below his level.

Let us give examples of the definition of means of communication in a short text.

(1) We met Masha several months ago. (2) My parents had not seen her yet, but did not insist on meeting her. (3) It seemed that she also did not strive for rapprochement, which upset me somewhat.

Let's determine how the sentences in this text are connected.

Sentence 2 is connected to sentence 1 using a personal pronoun her, which replaces the name Masha in sentence 1.

Sentence 3 is related to sentence 2 using word forms she her: “she” is a nominative case form, “her” is a genitive case form.

In addition, sentence 3 also has other means of communication: it is a conjunction Same, introductory word it seemed, series of synonymous constructions didn't insist on getting to know each other And didn't try to get closer.

Read an excerpt from the review. It examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list.

“In the text, the author uses various tropes: (A)_____ (“a silent human river flows” - transferring the characteristics of one object to another based on their similarity), (B)_____ (“like a bell” in sentence 36). Explaining his inner feelings after accidentally overhearing a conversation, the author uses the lexical means of expressiveness - (B)_____ (“with a light heart” in sentence 44). The syntactic means of expressiveness - (D)_____ (sentences 1, 5) - helps the author to depict the situation in which the action takes place and conveys the mood of the hero.”

List of terms:

1) metaphor

2) phraseology

3) lexical repetition

4) rows homogeneous members

5) comparison

6) parcellation

7) colloquial word

8) question-and-answer form of presentation

9) dialectism

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G

Explanation (see also Rule below).

Let's fill in the blanks.

“In the text the author uses various tropes: metaphor(“a silent human river flows” in sentence 6), comparison(“like a bell” in sentence 36). Explaining his inner feelings after an unexpectedly overheard conversation, the author uses a lexical means of expressiveness - phraseological unit(“with a light heart” in sentence 44). Syntactic means of expression - rows of homogeneous members(in sentence 1 there are homogeneous predicates “rose, wandered, rode”, in sentence 5 there are homogeneous circumstances “at the door, at the turnstiles, at the escalators, in the passages”) - helps the author to depict the situation in which the action takes place and conveys the mood of the hero "

Answer: 1524.

Answer: 1524

Rule: Task 26. Language means of expression

ANALYSIS OF MEANS OF EXPRESSION.

The purpose of the task is to determine the means of expression used in the review by establishing correspondence between the gaps indicated by letters in the text of the review and the numbers with definitions. You need to write matches only in the order in which the letters appear in the text. If you do not know what is hidden under a particular letter, you must put “0” in place of this number. You can get from 1 to 4 points for the task.

When completing task 26, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc. It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence. You can carry out this division, knowing that all means are divided into TWO large groups: the first includes lexical (non-special means) and tropes; secondly, figures of speech (some of them are called syntactic).

26.1 TROPIC WORD OR EXPRESSION USED IN A FIGUREABLE MEANING TO CREATE AN ARTISTIC IMAGE AND ACHIEVE GREATER EXPRESSIVENESS. Tropes include such techniques as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperbole and litotes.

Note: The assignment usually states that these are TRAILS.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

1.Epithet(in translation from Greek - application, addition) - this is a figurative definition that marks an essential feature for a given context in the depicted phenomenon. The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.

Epithets include all “colorful” definitions that are most often expressed adjectives:

sad orphaned land(F.I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I.A. Bunin).

Epithets can also be expressed:

-nouns, acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of the subject: winter sorceress; mother is the damp earth; The poet is a lyre, and not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);

-adverbs, acting as circumstances: In the wild north stands alone...(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind (K. G. Paustovsky);

-participles: waves rush thundering and sparkling;

-pronouns, expressing the superlative degree of a particular state of the human soul:

After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, still which! (M. Yu. Lermontov);

-participles and participial phrases: Nightingales in vocabulary rumbling announce the forest limits (B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of... greyhound writers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in their language except the words not remembering kinship(M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

2. Comparison is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another. Unlike metaphor, comparison is always binary: it names both compared objects (phenomena, characteristics, actions).

The villages are burning, they have no protection.

The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy,

And the glow like an eternal meteor,

Playing in the clouds frightens the eye. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Comparisons are expressed in various ways:

Instrumental case form of nouns:

Nightingale vagrant Youth flew by,

Wave in bad weather Joy fades away (A.V. Koltsov)

Comparative form of an adjective or adverb: These eyes greener sea ​​and our cypresses darker(A. Akhmatova);

Comparative phrases with conjunctions like, as if, as if, etc.:

Like a predatory beast, to the humble abode

The winner breaks in with bayonets... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

Using the words similar, similar, this is:

On the eyes of a cautious cat

Similar your eyes (A. Akhmatova);

Using comparative clauses:

Golden leaves swirled

In the pinkish water of the pond,

Like a light flock of butterflies

Flies breathlessly towards a star. (S. A. Yesenin)

3.Metaphor(in translation from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason. Unlike a comparison, which contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of the word. A metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.

All metaphors are divided into two groups:

1) general language(“erased”): golden hands, a storm in a teacup, moving mountains, strings of the soul, love has faded;

2) artistic(individual author’s, poetic):

And the stars fade diamond thrill

IN painless cold dawn (M. Voloshin);

Empty skies transparent glass (A. Akhmatova);

AND blue, bottomless eyes

They bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)

Metaphor happens not just single: it can develop in the text, forming entire chains of figurative expressions, in many cases - covering, as if permeating the entire text. This extended, complex metaphor, a complete artistic image.

4. Personification- this is a type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts. Most often, personifications are used to describe nature:

Rolling through the sleepy valleys, the sleepy mists lay down, And only the sound of a horse's tramp is lost in the distance. The autumn day has faded, turning pale, with the fragrant leaves curled up, and the half-withered flowers are enjoying dreamless sleep.. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

5. Metonymy(translated from Greek - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. Adjacency can be a manifestation of connection:

Between action and the instrument of action: Their villages and fields for a violent raid He doomed to swords and fires(A.S. Pushkin);

Between an object and the material from which the object is made: ... or on silver, I ate on gold(A. S. Griboyedov);

Between a place and the people in that place: The city was noisy, flags crackled, wet roses fell from the bowls of flower girls... (Yu. K. Olesha)

6. Synecdoche(in translation from Greek - correlation) - this a type of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Most often, transfer occurs:

From less to more: Even a bird does not fly to him, And a tiger does not come... (A.S. Pushkin);

From part to whole: Beard, why are you still silent?(A.P. Chekhov)

7. Periphrase, or periphrasis(translated from Greek - a descriptive expression) is a phrase that is used instead of any word or phrase. For example, Petersburg in verse

A. S. Pushkin - “Peter’s Creation”, “Beauty and Wonder of the Full Countries”, “The City of Petrov”; A. A. Blok in the poems of M. I. Tsvetaeva - “a knight without reproach”, “blue-eyed snow singer”, “snow swan”, “almighty of my soul”.

8.Hyperbole(translated from Greek - exaggeration) is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of any attribute of an object, phenomenon, action: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(N.V. Gogol)

And at that very moment there were couriers, couriers, couriers on the streets... can you imagine, thirty five thousands only couriers! (N.V. Gogol).

9. Litota(translated from Greek - smallness, moderation) is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of any attribute of an object, phenomenon, action: What tiny cows! There is, right, less than a pinhead.(I. A. Krylov)

And walking importantly, in decorous calm, the horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in large boots, in a short sheepskin coat, in large mittens... and from the nails myself!(N.A. Nekrasov)

10. Irony(in translation from Greek - pretense) is the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to the direct one. Irony is a type of allegory in which mockery is hidden behind an outwardly positive assessment: Why, smart one, are you delirious, head?(I. A. Krylov)

26.2 “NON-SPECIAL” LEXICAL VISUATIVE AND EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF LANGUAGE

Note: In assignments it is sometimes indicated that this is a lexical device. Typically, in a review of task 24, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as a single word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics. Please note: these are the products most often needed find in task 22!

11. Synonyms, i.e. words of the same part of speech, different in sound, but identical or similar in lexical meaning and differing from each other either in shades of meaning or stylistic coloring ( brave - brave, run - rush, eyes(neutral) - eyes(poet.)), have great expressive power.

Synonyms can be contextual.

12. Antonyms, i.e. words of the same part of speech, opposite in meaning ( truth - lie, good - evil, disgusting - wonderful), also have great expressive capabilities.

Antonyms can be contextual, that is, they become antonyms only in a given context.

Lies happen good or evil,

Compassionate or merciless,

Lies happen dexterous and awkward,

Prudent and reckless,

Intoxicating and joyless.

13. Phraseologisms as a means of linguistic expression

Phraseologisms (phraseological expressions, idioms), i.e. phrases and sentences reproduced in ready-made form, in which the integral meaning dominates the meanings of their constituent components and is not a simple sum of such meanings ( get into trouble, be in seventh heaven, bone of contention), have great expressive capabilities. The expressiveness of phraseological units is determined by:

1) their vivid imagery, including mythological ( the cat cried like a squirrel in a wheel, Ariadne's thread, sword of Damocles, Achilles heel);

2) the classification of many of them: a) to the category of high ( the voice of one crying in the wilderness, sink into oblivion) or reduced (colloquial, colloquial: like a fish in water, neither sleep nor spirit, lead by the nose, lather your neck, hang your ears); b) to the category of linguistic means with a positive emotional-expressive connotation ( to store like the apple of your eye - trade.) or with a negative emotional-expressive coloring (without the king in the head - disapproved, small fry - disdained, worthless - despised.).

14. Stylistically colored vocabulary

To enhance expressiveness in the text, all categories of stylistically colored vocabulary can be used:

1) emotional-expressive (evaluative) vocabulary, including:

a) words with a positive emotional-expressive assessment: solemn, sublime (including Old Slavonicisms): inspiration, future, fatherland, aspirations, hidden, unshakable; sublimely poetic: serene, radiant, enchantment, azure; approving: noble, outstanding, amazing, brave; endearments: sunshine, darling, daughter

b) words with a negative emotional-expressive assessment: disapproving: speculation, bickering, nonsense; dismissive: upstart, hustler; contemptuous: dunce, crammer, scribbling; abusive/

2) functionally and stylistically colored vocabulary, including:

a) book: scientific (terms: alliteration, cosine, interference); official business: the undersigned, report; journalistic: report, interview; artistic and poetic: azure, eyes, cheeks

b) colloquial (everyday): dad, boy, braggart, healthy

15. Vocabulary of limited use

To enhance expressiveness in the text, all categories of vocabulary of limited use can also be used, including:

Dialectal vocabulary (words that are used by residents of a particular area: kochet - rooster, veksha - squirrel);

Colloquial vocabulary (words with a pronounced reduced stylistic connotation: familiar, rude, dismissive, abusive, located on the border or outside the literary norm: beggar, drunkard, cracker, trash talker);

Professional vocabulary (words that are used in professional speech and are not included in the system of general literary language: galley - in the speech of sailors, duck - in the speech of journalists, window - in the speech of teachers);

Slang vocabulary (words characteristic of youth slang: party, frills, cool; computer: brains - computer memory, keyboard - keyboard; soldier: demobilization, scoop, perfume; criminal jargon: bro, raspberry);

The vocabulary is outdated (historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the objects or phenomena they denote: boyar, oprichnina, horse-drawn horse; archaisms are outdated words naming objects and concepts for which new names have appeared in the language: forehead - forehead, sail - sail); - new vocabulary (neologisms - words that have recently entered the language and have not yet lost their novelty: blog, slogan, teenager).

26.3 FIGURES (RHETORICAL FIGURES, STYLISTIC FIGURES, FIGURES OF SPEECH) ARE STYLISTIC DEVICES based on special combinations of words that go beyond the scope of normal practical use, and aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text. The main figures of speech include: rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal, repetition, syntactic parallelism, polyunion, non-union, ellipsis, inversion, parcellation, antithesis, gradation, oxymoron. Unlike lexical means, this is the level of a sentence or several sentences.

Note: In the tasks there is no clear definition format indicating these means: they are called syntactic means, and a technique, and simply a means of expressiveness, and a figure. In task 24, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

16.Rhetorical question is a figure that contains a statement in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer; it is used to enhance the emotionality, expressiveness of speech, and to attract the reader’s attention to a particular phenomenon:

Why did he give his hand to insignificant slanderers, Why did he believe false words and caresses, He who comprehended people from a young age?.. (M. Yu. Lermontov);

17.Rhetorical exclamation is a figure that contains a statement in the form of an exclamation. Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of certain feelings in a message; they are usually distinguished not only by special emotionality, but also by solemnity and elation:

That was on the morning of our years - Oh happiness! oh tears! O forest! oh life! oh sunshine! O fresh spirit of birch. (A.K. Tolstoy);

Alas! The proud country bowed to the power of a stranger. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

18.Rhetorical appeal- this is a stylistic figure consisting of an emphasized appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech. It serves not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but rather to express the attitude towards what is said in the text. Rhetorical appeals can create solemnity and pathosity of speech, express joy, regret and other shades of mood and emotional state:

My friends! Our union is wonderful. He, like the soul, is uncontrollable and eternal (A.S. Pushkin);

Oh, deep night! Oh, cold autumn! Mute! (K. D. Balmont)

19.Repetition (positional-lexical repetition, lexical repetition)- this is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of any member of a sentence (word), part of a sentence or a whole sentence, several sentences, stanzas in order to attract special attention to them.

Types of repetition are anaphora, epiphora and pickup.

Anaphora(translated from Greek - ascent, rise), or unity of beginning, is the repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of lines, stanzas or sentences:

Lazy the hazy noon breathes,

Lazy the river is rolling.

And in the fiery and pure firmament

Clouds are melting lazily (F.I. Tyutchev);

Epiphora(translated from Greek - addition, final sentence of a period) is the repetition of words or groups of words at the end of lines, stanzas or sentences:

Although man is not eternal,

That which is eternal - humanely.

What is a day or an age?

Before what is infinite?

Although man is not eternal,

That which is eternal - humanely(A. A. Fet);

They got a loaf of light bread - joy!

Today the film is good in the club - joy!

A two-volume edition of Paustovsky was brought to the bookstore. joy!(A.I. Solzhenitsyn)

Pickup- this is a repetition of any segment of speech (sentence, poetic line) at the beginning of the corresponding segment of speech following it:

He fell down on the cold snow,

On the cold snow, like a pine tree,

Like a pine tree in a damp forest (M. Yu. Lermontov);

20. Parallelism (syntactic parallelism)(in translation from Greek - walking next to) - identical or similar construction of adjacent parts of the text: adjacent sentences, poetic lines, stanzas, which, when correlated, create a single image:

I look at the future with fear,

I look at the past with longing... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

I was a ringing string for you,

I was your blooming spring,

But you didn't want flowers

And you didn't hear the words? (K. D. Balmont)

Often using antithesis: What is he looking for in a distant land? What did he throw in his native land?(M. Lermontov); Not the country is for business, but business is for the country (from the newspaper).

21. Inversion(translated from Greek - rearrangement, inversion) is a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to emphasize the semantic significance of any element of the text (word, sentence), giving the phrase a special stylistic coloring: solemn, high-sounding or, conversely, colloquial, somewhat reduced characteristics. The following combinations are considered inverted in Russian:

The agreed definition comes after the word being defined: I’m sitting behind bars in dungeon dank(M. Yu. Lermontov); But there were no swells running through this sea; the stuffy air did not flow: it was brewing great thunderstorm(I. S. Turgenev);

Additions and circumstances expressed by nouns come before the word to which they relate: Hours of monotonous battle(monotonous clock strike);

22.Parcellation(in translation from French - particle) - a stylistic device that consists in dividing a single syntactic structure of a sentence into several intonational and semantic units - phrases. At the point where the sentence is divided, a period, exclamation and question marks, and an ellipsis can be used. In the morning, bright as a splint. Scary. Long. Ratnym. The rifle regiment was defeated. Our. In an unequal battle(R. Rozhdestvensky); Why isn't anyone outraged? Education and healthcare! The most important areas of society! Not mentioned in this document at all(From newspapers); It is necessary for the state to remember the main thing: its citizens are not individuals. And people. (From newspapers)

23. Non-union and multi-union- syntactic figures based on deliberate omission, or, conversely, deliberate repetition of conjunctions. In the first case, when omitting conjunctions, speech becomes condensed, compact, and dynamic. The actions and events depicted here quickly, instantly unfold, replacing each other:

Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts.

Drumming, clicks, grinding.

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,

And death and hell on all sides. (A.S. Pushkin)

When multi-union speech, on the contrary, slows down, pauses and repeated conjunctions highlight words, expressively emphasizing their semantic significance:

But And grandson, And great-grandson, And great-great-grandson

They grow in me while I grow... (P.G. Antokolsky)

24.Period- a long, polynomial sentence or a very common simple sentence, which is distinguished by completeness, unity of topic and intonational division into two parts. In the first part, the syntactic repetition of the same type of subordinate clauses (or members of the sentence) occurs with an increasing increase in intonation, then there is a significant pause separating it, and in the second part, where the conclusion is given, the tone of voice noticeably decreases. This intonation design forms a kind of circle:

If I wanted to limit my life to the home circle, / When a pleasant lot ordered me to be a father, a husband, / If I were captivated by the family picture for even a single moment, then it’s true that I wouldn’t look for another bride besides you. (A.S. Pushkin)

25.Antithesis or opposition(in translation from Greek - opposition) is a turn in which opposing concepts, positions, images are sharply contrasted. To create an antithesis, antonyms are usually used - general linguistic and contextual:

You are rich, I am very poor, You are a prose writer, I am a poet(A.S. Pushkin);

Yesterday I looked into your eyes,

And now everything is looking sideways,

Yesterday I was sitting before the birds,

All larks these days are crows!

I'm stupid and you're smart

Alive, but I'm dumbfounded.

O cry of women of all times:

“My dear, what have I done to you?” (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

26.Gradation(in translation from Latin - gradual increase, strengthening) - a technique consisting in the sequential arrangement of words, expressions, tropes (epithets, metaphors, comparisons) in order of strengthening (increasing) or weakening (decreasing) of a characteristic. Increasing gradation usually used to enhance the imagery, emotional expressiveness and impact of the text:

I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend(A. A. Blok);

Glowed, burned, shone huge blue eyes. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Descending gradation is used less frequently and usually serves to enhance the semantic content of the text and create imagery:

He brought mortal resin

Yes, a branch with withered leaves. (A.S. Pushkin)

27.Oxymoron(translated from Greek - witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure in which usually incompatible concepts are combined, usually contradicting each other ( bitter joy, ringing silence and so on.); at the same time, a new meaning is obtained, and the speech acquires special expressiveness: From that hour began for Ilya sweet torment, lightly scorching the soul (I. S. Shmelev);

Eat joyful melancholy in the red of dawn (S. A. Yesenin);

But their ugly beauty I soon comprehended the mystery. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

28. Allegory– allegory, transmission of an abstract concept through a concrete image: Foxes and wolves must win(cunning, malice, greed).

29.Default- a deliberate break in the statement, conveying the emotion of the speech and suggesting that the reader will guess what was unspoken: But I wanted... Perhaps you...

In addition to the above syntactic means of expressiveness, the tests also contain the following:

-exclamation sentences;

- dialogue, hidden dialogue;

-question-and-answer form of presentation a form of presentation in which questions and answers to questions alternate;

-rows of homogeneous members;

-citation;

-introductory words and constructions

-Incomplete sentences– sentences in which any member is missing that is necessary for completeness of structure and meaning. Missing sentence members can be restored and contextualized.

Including ellipsis, that is, omission of the predicate.

These concepts are covered in the school syntax course. That is probably why these means of expression are most often called syntactic in reviews.

• Category: Texts for Unified State Exam essays

Text

The grandson arrived and ran off with the guys to go skiing. And Baba Dunya, suddenly revived, bustled briskly around the house: she cooked cabbage soup, made pies, took out jam and compotes and looked out the window to see if Grisha was running.

Today, with Grisha’s arrival, she forgot about the illness. The day flew by in bustle and worries. Before I had time to look back, it was already turning blue outside the window and evening was approaching.

We went to bed. Baba Dunya, ashamed, said:

At night, maybe I will make some noise. So wake me up.

Grisha waved it off:

Granny, I don't hear anything. I'm dead asleep.

Well, thank God. And now I’m making noise, you old fool. I can't do anything.

Both Baba Dunya and grandson fell asleep quickly.

But in the middle of the night Grisha woke up screaming.

Help! Help, good people!

Woke up, in the darkness, he did not understand anything, and fear overwhelmed him.

Kind people! I lost my cards! The cards are tied in a blue handkerchief! Maybe, who raised it? - and fell silent.

Grisha realized where he was and what. It was Baba Dunya who screamed.

In the darkness, in the silence, grandmother’s heavy breathing could be heard so clearly. She seemed to be breathing, gaining strength. And she started wailing again, until she couldn’t speak out loud.

Cards... Where are the cards... In a blue handkerchief... Good people. Guys... Petyanya, Shurik, Taechka... When I come home, they will ask for food... Give me some bread, mommy. And their mother... - Baba Dunya paused, as if stunned, and shouted: - Good people! Don't let me die! Petyanya! Shura! Taechka! - She seemed to sing the names of the children, subtly and painfully.

Grisha could not stand it, got out of bed, went into his grandmother’s room:

Granny! Granny! - he called. - Wake up...

She woke up and stirred.

Grisha, is that you? Woke you up. Forgive me, for Christ's sake.

You, woman, lay on the wrong side, on your heart.

To the heart, to the heart... - Baba Dunya obediently agreed.

You can't do it on your heart. Lie on the right.

I'll lie down, I'll lie down...

She felt so guilty.

Grisha returned to his room and went to bed. He knew about the cards. They were given bread. A long time ago, during the war and after. And Petyanya, about whom the grandmother was grieving, is the father.

In the morning Grisha went fishing. And in the evening I went to the post office home, in the city, to call. During the conversation, the mother asked:

Does Grandma Dunya let you sleep? - and advised: - She will just start talking, and you shout: “Be silent”! She will stop. We tried.

On the way home I started thinking about my grandmother. Now, from the outside, she seemed so weak and lonely. And then there are these nights in tears, like punishment. My father remembered the old years. But for him they passed. But not for grandma. And with what, indeed, difficulty she awaits the night. All people lived through bitter things and forgot. And she has it again and again. But how can we help? 52

And night came. The lights were turned off. Grisha did not lie down, but sat up in bed, waiting for his time.

Baba Dunya soon fell asleep. Grisha was waiting. And when finally more indistinct muttering came from his grandmother’s room, he got up and walked away. He turned on the light in the kitchen and stood near the bed, feeling an involuntary shiver overcome him.

Lost... No... No cards... - Baba Dunya muttered still quietly. - Cards... Where... Cards... - and tears, tears rolled up.

Grisha took a deep breath to shout louder, and even raised his foot to stomp. Just to be sure.

Bread... cards... - Baba Dunya reprimanded in great agony with tears.

The boy's heart was filled with pity and pain. Forgetting what he had thought about, he knelt down in front of the bed and began to convince, softly, affectionately:

Here are your cards, grandma... In a blue scarf, right? Are yours wearing a blue scarf? These are yours, you dropped them. And I picked it up. “You see, take it,” he repeated persistently. - Everything is intact, take it...

Baba Dunya fell silent. Apparently, there, in a dream, she heard and understood everything. The words did not come immediately. But they came.

Mine, mine... My handkerchief, blue. People will say. I dropped my cards. Save Christ, good man...

“Don’t cry,” he said loudly. - The cards are intact. Why cry? Take some bread and bring it to the kids. “Bring it in, have dinner and go to bed,” he said, as if ordering. - And sleep peacefully. Sleep.

Baba Dunya fell silent.

Baba Dunya was sleeping. And he sat by the stove and cried. Tears rolled and rolled. They came from the heart, because his heart ached and ached, pitying Baba Dunya and someone else... He did not sleep, but was in a strange oblivion, as if in distant years, other years and in someone else’s life, and he saw himself there, in this life, such bitterness, such misfortune and sadness that he could not help but cry. And he cried, wiping his tears with his fist.

But as soon as Baba Dunya spoke, he forgot about everything. My head became clear and the trembling disappeared from my body. He approached Baba Dunya on time.

There is a document, there is a document... here it is... - she said in a trembling voice. - I’m making my way to my husband, to the hospital. And it's night outside. Let me spend the night.

Grisha seemed to see a dark street and a woman in the darkness and opened the door to greet her.

Of course we'll let you in. Please pass. Come on in. Your document is not needed.

There is a document! - Baba Dunya shouted.

Grisha realized that he had to take the document.

Okay, let's go. So... I see. Very good document. Correct. With photo card and stamp.

Correct... - Baba Dunya sighed with relief. - Vyatka province, Oryol district.

Everything fits together. Come on in.

I would like it on the floor. Only until the morning. Wait it out.

No gender. Here's the bed. Sleep well. Sleep. Sleep. On your side - and sleep.

Baba Dunya obediently turned over on her right side, put her palm under her head and fell asleep. Now it's until morning.

Grisha lay down in bed, anticipating how he would tell his grandmother tomorrow and how they were together... But suddenly a clear thought burned him: “You can’t talk.” He clearly understood: not a word, not even a hint. It must stay and die in him. You need to do and be silent. Tomorrow night and the one that comes after it. You need to do and be silent. And healing will come.

(Based on the story “Night of Healing”)

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