Post on Maya Inca Aztecs. Ancient civilizations: Maya and Aztecs

A little more than ten years ago, on October 12, 1992, one of the most significant dates in the history of mankind was celebrated on planet Earth - the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. There are many hypotheses about when in the Western Hemisphere, in the Americas, on numerous islands, a man appeared and when people came to the American continent. For the fifth century (since the 16th century), scholars have been debating this issue. In numerous studies on this topic, among the first inhabitants of America, they name the emigrants from the Canary Islands, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, ancient Greeks and Romans, Jews, Spaniards, Egyptians and Babylonians, Chinese and even Tatars and Scythians.

Science developed, and as new discoveries accumulated knowledge, there was a selection of hypotheses. Today there is no longer any doubt that the part of the world, designated on the world map as America, was inhabited by immigrants from other continents. However, with which ones - it has not been finally decided. Nevertheless, scientists were able to identify many common features inherent in all Indians, bringing them closer to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. The appearance of the original inhabitants of America at the time of their first encounters with Europeans was as follows: a stocky figure, short legs, medium-sized feet, rather long but with small hands, a high and usually wide forehead, poorly developed brow ridges. The face of the Indian had a large, strongly protruding nose (often, especially in the north, the so-called aquiline), a rather large mouth. The eyes are usually dark brown. Hair is black, straight, thick.

In many of the first European documentary and literary sources, it was indicated that the Indians were red. In fact, this is not true. The skin of representatives of all kinds of Indian tribes is rather yellow-brown. According to modern researchers, the first settlers gave them the name "redskins". It did not arise by chance. The North American Indians once had the custom of rubbing their face and body with red ocher on solemn occasions. Therefore, the Europeans called them red.

Currently, anthropologists distinguish three main groups of Indians - North American, South American and Central American, whose representatives differ among themselves in height, skin color and other characteristics.

Most researchers believe that the settlement of the American continent came from Asia through the Bering Strait. Scientists believe that four great glaciers helped ancient people to overcome the water space. According to this hypothesis, during the glaciation, the Bering Strait froze over and turned into a kind of huge bridge. Asian tribes, who led a nomadic way of life, freely moved along it to the neighboring continent. Based on this, the time of the appearance of man on the American continent has been determined - this happened 10-30 thousand years ago.

By the time the Spanish caravels appeared under the command of Christopher Columbus off the eastern coast of the New World (October 1492), North and South America, including the West Indies, was inhabited by many tribes and nationalities. With the light hand of the famous navigator, who assumed that he had discovered new lands in India, they began to be called Indians. These tribes were at different levels of development. According to most researchers, before the European conquest, the most developed civilizations of the Western Hemisphere were formed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The term "Mesoamerica" ​​was introduced in the 40s of the XX century by the German scientist Paul Kirgoff. Since then, in archeology, this is the designation for a geographic region that includes Mexico and most of Central America (up to the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica). It was this territory that, at the time of its discovery by the Europeans, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and presented a different picture of the cultures they represented. According to the correct definition of the Czech Americanist Miloslav Stingl, "these cultures were at various stages of the development of a tribal society, and the general laws of evolution inherent in the primitive communal formation manifested themselves here in a multitude of local variants and forms." Among the brightest and most developed civilizations of Ancient America (pre-Columbian period), scientists include such cultures as Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Toltec and Aztec.

The study of the art of Ancient America, its history is comparatively young. It is a little over a hundred years old. Researchers-Americanists at the present time do not have such a rich material and achievements that are available today in the study of ancient art. They also experience great difficulties due to the fact that in order to support their conclusions obtained as a result of archaeological excavations and discoveries, they do not have such a number of written monuments that are, for example, at the disposal of researchers of the Ancient East. Among the ancient Americans, writing appeared much later and never reached a high level of development. The written monuments of the peoples of Mesoamerica that have come down to us have not yet been sufficiently studied. Therefore, most of the information regarding political history, social structure, mythology, conquests, titles and names of rulers is based only on Indian legends. Many of them were written down after the Spanish conquest and date back to the first half of the 16th century. It is also important to remember that up to this time, ancient American civilizations developed without any influence from European or Asian centers. Until the 16th century, their development proceeded completely independently.

The art of Ancient America, like any other art, has a number of features and characteristics, inherent only in it. In order to comprehend this originality, a dialectical approach is necessary, taking into account the historical conditions under which the art and culture of the most ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica developed.

Scientists attribute the highest flowering of the culture of the Mayan Indian tribe to the 7th-8th centuries. The Aztec empire reached its apogee by the beginning of the 16th century. Very often in the works of archaeologists and researchers of ancient cultural civilizations, the Mayan Indian peoples (as older in age) are called by analogy "Greeks", and the Aztecs (as they existed later) - the "Romans" of the New World.

The cultural traditions of the Maya Indians had a huge impact on the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and Salva Dor, as well as in several states of modern Mexico. The geographic boundaries of this civilization were 325,000 km2 and covered the habitat of several tens, and possibly hundreds of tribes. In general, the tribes inherited a single culture. However, in many respects it had, of course, regional features.

The Maya civilization stood out primarily for its achievements in construction and architecture. Representatives of this nation created exquisite and perfect works of painting and sculpture, had unique masters in stone processing and making ceramics. The Maya had a deep knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Their greatest achievement is the introduction of such a mathematical concept as "zero". They began to use it hundreds of years earlier than other highly developed civilizations.

The Aztecs appeared in Central Mexico in the second half of the 12th century. Until this time, no historical data has been found about them. There are only a few legends and traditions from which it is known that they called the island Aztlan (Astlan) their homeland. One of the traditional descriptions of the supposed life of ancestors in Aztlan is known, allegedly compiled for the last of the pre-Hispanic rulers of the Aztec state, the famous Montezuma II the Younger, on the basis of ancient manuscripts. According to this source, the ancestral home of Aztlan was located on an island (or represented an island), where there was a large mountain with caves that served as dwellings. From this word denoting the location of the island (Aztlan), the name of the tribe originated - the Aztecs (more precisely, the Astecs). However, science has not yet established the exact geographical position of this island.

In the earliest stages of their existence, the Aztecs were dominated by a nomadic lifestyle, they were mainly engaged in hunting. This left an imprint on their character. By their nature, they were very belligerent. For almost two centuries, the Az-Tecs waged wars of conquest and at the beginning of the XIV century, having conquered many other tribes that lived in Central Mexico, created a powerful empire. Around 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), which they founded, became its capital.

At present, interest in the study of the most ancient Indian civilizations has not faded away. Monuments of architecture, sculpture, jewelry, household items found in places where peoples with an original, unique culture lived several millennia ago, conceal a lot of unsolved. Learning the history of pre-Columbian America, the leading archaeologists and scientists of our time are trying to find an explanation for many of the most important aspects of the life of ancient human communities.

By the time Columbus "discovered" America (1492), it was inhabited by many Indian tribes and ethnic groups, most of whom were at a primitive stage of development. At the same time, some of them, who lived in Mesoamerica (Central America) and the Andes (South America), reached the level of highly developed ancient civilizations, although they were far behind Europe: the latter by that time was experiencing the heyday of the Renaissance.

The meeting of two worlds, two cultures and civilizations had different consequences for the sides that met. Europe borrowed many of the achievements of Indian civilizations, in particular, it was thanks to America that Europeans began to use potatoes, tomatoes, corn, beans, tobacco, cocoa, and quinine. On the whole, after the discovery of the New World, the development of Europe accelerated significantly. The fate of ancient American cultures and civilizations was completely different: the development of some of them actually stopped, and many disappeared altogether from the face of the earth.

The available scientific evidence indicates that there were no centers of the formation of the most ancient man on the American continent. The settlement of ϶ᴛᴏgo continent with people began in the late Paleolithic era - about 30-20 thousand years ago - and went from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska. The further evolution of the emerging communities went through all known stages and had both similarities and differences from other continents.

An example of a highly developed primitive culture of the New World is the so-called Olmec culture, existed on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 1st millennium BC. Much remains unclear and mysterious about this culture. In particular, the specific ethnos is not known - the bearer (the name "Olmek" will be conditional) of this culture, the general territory of its distribution, as well as the peculiarities of the social structure, etc. are not determined.

It is important to note that, however, with all this, the available archaeological evidence suggests that in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The tribes inhabiting Verescus and Tabasco reached a high level of development. They will have the first "ritual centers", they build pyramids from adobe and clay, erect monuments of monumental sculpture. An example of such monuments were huge anthropomorphic heads weighing up to 20 tons. Relief carving on basalt and jade, the manufacture of axes-Celts, masks and statues are becoming widespread. In the 1st century. BC. there will be the first samples of writing and calendar. Similar cultures existed in other parts of the continent.

Ancient cultures and civilizations took shape by the end of the 1st millennium BC. and existed until the 16th century. AD - before the arrival of the Europeans. In their evolution, two periods are usually distinguished: early, or classical (1st millennium AD), and late, or postclassical (X-XVI centuries A.D.)

Among the most significant cultures of Mesoamerica of the classical period are teotihuacan. originated in Central Mexico. Remaining ruins Note that teotihuacan - the capital of the civilization of the same name - testifies to the fact that ϶ᴛᴏ was the political, economic and cultural center of all Mesoamerica with a population of 60-120 thousand people. Crafts and trade developed most successfully there. Archaeologists have discovered about 500 craft workshops in the city, whole neighborhoods of foreign merchants and "diplomats". Crafts are found almost throughout Central America.

It is noteworthy that almost the entire city was a U-shaped architectural monument. Its center was carefully planned around two wide streets intersecting at right angles: from north to south - the Road of the Dead avenue over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.

At the northern end of the Road of the Dead, there is a huge silhouette of the Pyramid of the Moon (height 42 m), made of raw bricks and faced with volcanic stone. On the other side of the avenue, there is an even more grandiose structure - the Pyramid of the Sun (height 64.5 m), at the top of which a temple once stood. The intersection of the avenues is occupied by the ruler's palace. Note that teotihuacan is the "Citadel", which is a complex of buildings, which included the temple god Quetzalcoatl - Feathered Serpent, one of the main deities, the patron saint of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind. Only its pyramidal base has survived from the temple, consisting of six diminishing stone platforms, as if placed on top of each other. The facade of the pyramid and the balustrade of the main staircase are decorated with the sculptural heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly.

Along the Road of the Dead are the remains of dozens of temples and palaces. Among them is the beautiful Quetzalpapalotl Palace, reconstructed today, or the Palace of the Feathered Snail, whose walls are decorated with fresco paintings. Fine examples of such painting are also found in the Temple of Agriculture, which depicts gods, people and animals. The original monuments of the culture under consideration will be anthropomorphic masks made of stone and clay. In the III-VII centuries. ceramics - cylindrical vessels with picturesque paintings or carved ornaments - and terracotta figurines are becoming widespread.

The highest flourishing culture Note that teotihuacan reached the beginning of the 7th century. AD At the same time, already at the end of the same century, the beautiful city suddenly perishes, destroyed by a gigantic fire. The causes of the ϶ᴛᴏth disaster still remain unclear - most likely as a result of the invasion of the militant barbarian tribes of Northern Mexico.

Aztec culture

After the death Note that teotihuacan Central Mexico for a long time plunged into troubled times of interethnic wars and strife. As a result of repeated mixing of local tribes with newcomers - first with the Chichemeks, and then with the tenochka-pharmacies - in 1325 on the deserted islands of the lake Note that the capital of the Aztecs was founded by Tescoco Note that tenochtitlan. The emerging city-state grew rapidly and by the beginning of the 16th century. became one of the most powerful powers in America - the famous the empire of the aztecs with a huge territory and a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico.

The capital itself - Note that Tenochtitlan - has become a large city with a population of 120-300 thousand inhabitants. The island city was connected to the mainland by three wide stone dam roads. According to eyewitnesses, the Aztec capital was a beautiful, well-planned city. Its ritual and administrative center was a magnificent architectural ensemble, which included a walled "sacred site", inside which were located the main city temples, dwellings of priests, schools, and a playground for ritual ball games. Nearby were the equally magnificent palaces of the rulers of the Aztecs.

The basis the economy the Aztecs were agriculture, and the main cultivated crop was corn. It should be emphasized that it was the Aztecs who were the first to grow cocoa beans and tomatoes; they are the authors of the word "tomatoes". Many crafts were at a high level, especially chasing for gold. When the great Albrecht Durer saw Aztec gold items in 1520, he declared: "Never in my life have I seen anything that would move me so deeply as these objects."

The highest level reached spiritual culture of the Aztecs. This was largely facilitated by effective education system, which included two types of schools in which the male population is trained. In schools of the first type, boys from the upper stratum were brought up, who were to become a priest, dignitary or military leader. Boys from ordinary families studied in schools of the second type, where they were trained for agricultural work, crafts and military affairs. School was compulsory.

The system of religious and mythological representations and cults the Aztecs was quite complex. At the origins of the pantheon were the progenitors - the creator god Ome flow aphids and his divine consort. Among the acting, the main deity was the god of the sun and war. Huitzilopochtli. War was a form of worship of this god and was elevated to a cult.
It is worth noting that the god Sinteoble, the patron saint of corn fertility, occupied a special place. Lord Quetzalcoatl was the protector of the priests.

The god of trade and the patron saint of merchants was Yakatekuhali. In general, there were many gods. Suffice it to say that every month and every day of the year they had His God.

Developed very successfully the science. It was based on philosophy, which was done by the highly respected sages. Leading science was astronomy. Aztec stargazers happily orientated themselves in the starry picture of the sky. To meet the needs of agriculture, they developed a fairly accurate calendar. taking into account the position and movement of stars in the sky.

The Aztecs created a highly developed artistic culture. Among the arts, she achieved significant success literature. Aztec writers created didactic treatises, dramatic and prose works. The leading position was occupied by poetry, which included several genres: war poems, poems about flowers, spring songs. The greatest success was enjoyed by religious verses and hymns, which were sung in honor of the main gods of the Aztecs.

Developed no less successfully architecture. In addition to the above-mentioned beautiful ensembles and palaces of the capital, magnificent architectural monuments were created in other cities. Moreover, almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish conquistadors. Among the amazing creations is the recently discovered temple at Malinalco. This temple, which took the form of a traditional Aztec pyramid, is notable for the fact. that he was all carved right into the rock. If we consider that the Aztecs used only stone tools, then one can imagine what gigantic efforts were required to build this temple.

In the 1980s, as a result of earthquakes, earthworks and excavations in the very center of Mexico City, the Main Temple of the Aztecs was opened - Note that templo Major. The sanctuaries of the chief god Huitzilopochtli and the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture, Tlaloc, have also been uncovered. Remains of wall paintings and stone sculptures were found. Among those found, a round stone with a diameter of more than 3 m with a bas-relief image of the goddess Koyol-shauhki, sister of Huitzilopochtli, stands out. Stone figures of gods, corals, shells, ceramics, necklaces, etc. have been preserved in deep pit-caches.

The culture and civilization of the Aztecs reached the highest flowering at the beginning of the 16th century. At the same time, soon ϶ᴛᴏmu flowering was ended. The Spaniards captured It should be noted that tenochti glan in 1521 the city was destroyed, and on its ruins a new city arose - Mexico City, which became the center of the colonial possessions of the European conquerors.

Mayan civilization

The culture and civilization of the Maya became another amazing phenomenon of pre-Columbian America that existed in the 1st-15th centuries. AD in southeastern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. The modern researcher of the go region G. Lehman called the Maya "the most fascinating of all the civilizations of ancient America."

Indeed, everything related to the Maya is shrouded in mystery and mystery. Their origin remains a mystery. The mystery will be their choice of place of settlement - the rugged jungles of Mexico. It is important to note that the ups and downs in their subsequent development seem to be both a mystery and a miracle.

In the classical period (I-IX centuries AD), the development of the Mayan civilization and culture is steep ascending. Already in the first centuries of our era, they reach the highest level and amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting. The emerging large and populous cities become centers of handicraft production, marked by a real flourishing of painted ceramics. In ϶ᴛᴏ time, the Maya create the only developed in America hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by the inscriptions on the steles, reliefs, objects of small plastic. The Maya compiled an accurate solar calendar, successfully predicting solar and lunar eclipses.

The main view of the monumental architecture there was a pyramidal temple installed on a high pyramid - up to 70 m. If we consider that the entire building was erected on high pyramidal hills, then one can imagine how majestic and grandiose the whole structure looks. This is exactly what the Temple of the Inscriptions in Palenque looks like, which served as the ruler's tomb like the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. The entire structure was covered with hieroglyphic relief inscriptions, which adorn the walls, the crypt, the lid of the sarcophagus and other objects. A steep staircase with several platforms leads to the temple. In the city there are three more pyramids with the temples of the Sun, the Cross and the Deciduous Cross, as well as a palace with a five-story square tower, which apparently served as an observatory: on the top floor there is a stone bench on which the stargazer sat, peering into the distant sky. The walls of the palace are also decorated with reliefs depicting prisoners of war.

In the VI-IX centuries. the highest successes are achieved monumental sculpture and Mayan painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan and other cities achieve a rare skill and subtlety in conveying the natural poses and movements of the characters depicted, which are usually the rulers, dignitaries and warriors. Small plastics, especially small figurines, are also remarkable for their amazing craftsmanship.

The surviving examples of Mayan painting amaze with the elegance of the pattern and the richness of color. The famous Bonampak frescoes will be recognized as masterpieces of pictorial art. It is worth noting that they talk about military battles, depict solemn ceremonies, complex rituals of sacrifice, graceful dances, etc.

In the 1X-X centuries. most of the Mayan cities were destroyed by the invading Toltec tribes, but in the XI century. Mayan culture was revived again in the Yucatan Peninsula and in the mountains of Guatemala.
It is worth noting that the cities of Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Mayapan are becoming its main centers.

The most successful is still developing architecture. It is important to note that one of the remarkable architectural monuments of the post-classical period will be the pyramid of Kukulkan - "Feathered Serpent" in Chichen Itza. To the top of the nine-step pyramid, where the temple is located, there are four staircases, bordered by a balustrade, which at the bottom begins with a beautifully executed snake's head and in the form of a snake body continues to the upper floor. The pyramid symbolizes the calendar, as the 365 steps of its staircase represent the number of days in a year. It is worth noting that it is remarkable, in addition, for the fact that inside it there is another nine-step pyramid, in which there is a sanctuary, and in it there is an amazing stone throne depicting a jaguar.

The pyramid "Temple of the Magician" in Uxmal will also be very original. It is worth noting that it differs from all others in that it has an oval shape in a horizontal projection.

By the middle of the 15th century. the Maya culture is entering a severe crisis and declining. When the Spanish conquerors entered at the beginning of the XVI century. to the Mayan cities, many of them were abandoned by their inhabitants. The reasons for such an unexpected and sad ending of a flourishing culture and civilization remain a mystery.

Ancient civilizations of South America. Inca culture

In South America, almost simultaneously with the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica, at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, in the mountains of the northeastern region of Peru, a no less mysterious Chavin culture, similar to the Olmec, although not related to it.

At the turn of our era in the northern part of the coastal zone of Peru will remain civilization Mochica, and in the south - Nazca civilization. Somewhat later, in the mountains of northern Bolivia, an original Tiahuanaco culture. These civilizations of South America were in some respects inferior to the cultures of the Mesoamerica: they did not have hieroglyphic writing, an exact calendar, etc. But in many other ways - especially in technology - they were superior to Mesoamerica. Already from the II millennium BC. the Indians of Peru and Bolivia smelted metals, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys and made from them not only fine jewelry, but also tools of labor - shovels and hoes. It is worth noting that they had developed agriculture, built magnificent temples, created monumental sculptures, and made wonderful ceramic items with polychrome painting. Their fine fabrics made of cotton and wool have become widely known. In the 1st millennium A.D. the production of metal products, ceramics and fabrics reached a large and high level, and it was this that constituted the unique characteristic of the South American civilizations of the classical period.

The post-classical period (X-XVI centuries AD) is marked by the emergence and disappearance of many states in both the mountainous and coastal zones of South America. In the XIV century. the Incas create in the mountainous zone the state of Tahuatin-suyu, who, after long wars with neighboring small states, manages to emerge victorious and subjugate all the others.

In the XV century. it turns to the giant and famous Inca Empire with a huge territory and a population of about 6 million people. At the head of a huge power was a divine ruler, the son of the Inca Sun, who relied on the hereditary aristocracy and the caste of priests.

The basis the economy was agriculture, the main crops of which were corn, potatoes, beans, red pepper. The Inca state was distinguished by an effective organization of public works, called "mita". Mita assumed the obligation of all subjects of the empire to work one month a year on the construction of state facilities. It is worth noting that it allowed tens of thousands of people to be gathered in one place, thanks to which irrigation canals, fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. were built in a short time.

From north to south, the Land of the Incas is crossed by two parallel roads. one of which had a length of more than 5 thousand km. These highways were connected to each other by a large number of cross roads, which created an excellent communications network. Along the roads, at certain distances, there were post stations, warehouses with products and necessary materials. There was a state post office in Gauatinsuyu.

Spiritual and religious life and questions of the cult were in the jurisdiction of the priests. The supreme deity was considered Viracocha - Creator of the world and the rest of the gods. Other deities were the god of the golden Sun, Inti. god of weather, thunder and lightning Ilyp.
It should be noted that a special place was occupied by the ancient cults of the Earth mother Mama Pacha and the sea mother Mama (Sochi. The worship of the gods took place in stone temples decorated with gold inside.

State regulated all aspects of life, including the personal life of the citizens of the empire. All Incas, up to a certain age, had to marry. If he did not happen, then this issue was decided by a state official at his discretion, and his decision was binding.

Although the Incas did not have a real written language, ϶ᴛᴏ did not stop them from creating beautiful myths, legends, epic poems, religious hymns, as well as dramatic works. Unfortunately, little of His spiritual wealth has survived.

Of the highest flowering the culture the Incas reached at the beginning Xvi v. Moreover, ϶ᴛᴏ prosperity did not last long. In 1532, the most powerful empire of pre-Columbian America submitted almost without resistance to the Europeans. A small group of Spanish conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro managed to kill the Inca Atahualpa, which paralyzed the will to resist his people, and the great Inca empire ceased to exist.

Introduction
The origin of ancient American civilizations has always been controversial. They were considered the descendants of the Egyptians, Trojans and even the Carthaginians, and one of the hypotheses names ten disappeared tribes of Israel among the ancestors of the Indians. In fact, the ancestors of the Indians came from Siberia. In pursuit of the game, they crossed the ice across the Bering Strait. Eleven thousand years ago, they reached the southern tip of South America. High-level cultures have developed in part of central America (currently, it is mainly modern Mexico and Guatemala), as well as in the central part of the Andes (now Peru and the plateau region of Bolivia are located here).
The history of the state and law of ancient American civilizations is usually divided into the following categories:
- ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica
- and the ancient states of South America
Mesoamerica is the territory between South and North America. The first evidence of the appearance in Mexico of signs of dimestization (domestication) of maize dates back to the 5th century BC. In the IV millennium BC. maize farming is spreading in the Teucana Valley. Finally, the population in the Teucana Valley switched to a sedentary lifestyle in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.
South America - divided into:
- the region of the Andes (from Colombia to Chile), which includes the culture of the Incas of Peru;
- the area of ​​the Rainforest, mainly occupied by the Amazonian jungle; Guyana adjoins it;
- Big Chaco;
- The southern area, stretching to Tierra del Fuego.
The area of ​​the Andes of the ancient period can be represented as follows. People settled in the high valleys of the Andes ten thousand years ago. Hunting was not developed, people got squirrels from fishing. Agricultural culture arises earlier than distant pasture cattle breeding. An irrigation system is created and a state that distributes water appears. The Chavin culture emerges on the northern plateau. The main deity of their cult, the jaguar or puma, was popular in the Andean region for five hundred years.
Around 300 A.D. traces of the unity of the Andes region are disappearing, but agriculture is developing: new species of plants are cultivated, terrace farming is practiced.
Around AD 200, the cultures of the transition period flourish. They are theocratic, the main deity is an animal from the feline breed, human sacrifices are made to the gods, from birth the child's skull is deformed, and then throughout life, the cranium is repeatedly trepanned; the same procedure is carried out after death; the skulls of enemies are collected as trophies.
The Mochica culture erected huge temples, the most famous of which are the two pyramids called the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. The coastal Nazca culture, modern to the Mochica culture, left many flattened skulls, painted and strung into garlands to make them easier to transport. On the rocks of the Palpa valley, the Nazis created huge drawings reflecting the system of astronomical knowledge and intended for contemplation from above by a deity. Towards the end of this period, the megalithic civilization of Tiahuanaco (Bolivia) exerts the same cultural influence on the peoples inhabiting the Andes as the Chavin culture had in an earlier era.
Around 1000 A.D. in the Andes, a socio-political system was established, reminiscent of Western feudalism. In the north, the kingdom of Chimu arises, which subjugates many valleys, in each of which its own city center is being built.
Chapter 1. Socio-political system of ancient American
civilizations
§1. Social system
Many tribes and peoples lived in America. Above other peoples in terms of economic development and culture were the Maya, Aztecs and Incas.
People Mayan inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America. The heyday of the Mayan civilization occurred approximately in the 3rd-9th centuries, when the Mayan state included the territory of today's Guatemala, part of Mexico, etc.
There was social stratification in Maya society. The nobility who owned the wealth acquired by trade and the ordinary peasants who cultivated the land was divided by a deep abyss. The land was owned by the communities; the community allocated a plot cleared of forest for each family. The nobility and the priests dominated over the common members of the community. There were also slaves from captives and debtors.
In the 1st century. the Maya had city-states. At the head of each city was a "great man" - a ruler who passed on power by inheritance. He collected taxes from the population of the district.
The nobility lived in the center of the city in stone palaces, and on the outskirts in huts "low people" settled - peasants and artisans. The nobility also differed in appearance. The aristocrats admired their elongated flat foreheads; with special planks, they squeezed the heads of their children to deform their skulls.
By the time the Spanish arrived, civil war had nearly destroyed the Mayan civilization. Some cities are overgrown with forests. The Spaniards discovered fortified cities with preserved stone buildings, market squares and temples.
The Maya were influenced by the Olmecs and some researchers believe that they are one people.
The public organization of the Maya was the clan-phratrial structures. The rulers of the kingdoms bore the title Ahav, and the centers subordinate to them were ruled by Sakhals, who came from local clans.
A special group consisted of priests who performed various functions: some were ideologists claiming power, others were shamans, scientists and healers. The Maya had hieroglyphic writing partially decoded, a complex and accurate calendar, architecture and sculpture, dramatic art with the sacrifice of the main character. The high priest was subordinate to the haksh uinik.
Wars were in the nature of gods for the ruin and capture of prisoners were fought constantly, strengthening one or another city.
There is almost no dependent population. The society was based on free members of the community. They participated in community service and military campaigns when they were free. The basis of the economy is slash-and-burn communal farming with a change of plots.
A new type of political-territorial formations is gradually being formed: a confederation of cities with an emerging capital. Domestic slavery and slave sacrifice and the slave trade emerged.
In the XIII century. came to the territory of present-day Mexico from the north aztecs and founded the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs are an Indian people who inhabited the territory of Central America. In the XV century. they conquered other territories. By 1520, the Aztec empire stretched from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic coast, from the deserts in the north to the settlements of the Mayan Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula in the south.
The Aztec civilization was considered one of the most prosperous. The empire with a population of 15 million was governed with a high degree of efficiency.
The state was headed by a hereditary ruler. High positions were held by noble people and received salaries for the service. Everything needed was taken from the territories under control.
The Aztecs subjugated neighboring tribes, forced them to pay heavy tribute and give slaves. Although the tribes were still ruled by local chieftains, Aztec governors and tribute collectors lived in the main cities.
Life in the state proceeded according to rituals, the course of which was determined according to two calendars: one for the civil year, the other for the sacred.
The Aztecs worshiped many gods, but considered themselves the chosen people of the god Uitzilopochtli (the sun god), who demanded human sacrifice. They believed that this god needs a constant feeding of blood: life in the universe could be prolonged only by sacrificing prisoners.
The Aztecs fought to capture more prisoners. At one ceremony during the reign of the last king of Monte Suma II, 12 thousand prisoners were executed. Sometimes the Aztecs ate the limbs of their victims, and their priests wore ceremonial robes sewn from human skin. If a brave warrior was sacrificed, the Aztecs were convinced that his power would pass to their own soldiers.
At the same time, the Aztecs valued humility, compassion, obedience, and hard work. They implemented a rigid legal system and punished severely for crimes. Boys from noble families were sent to boarding schools, where they studied politics, law, history, music, and the art of war. Boys from families were trained in trade, craft.
According to Aztec mythology, the wind god Quetzalcoatl, returning from the east, will cause the fall of the Aztec empire, the Spaniard conqueror E. Cortez used this prediction to claim the throne. Ruler of the aztecs
Montezuma believed that Cortez was none other than a god. Cortez took Montezuma hostage and began to rule on his behalf. In the end, the unfortunate king was stoned to death by his subjects, whom he tried to call for calm during the Aztec uprising. The struggle against the Spaniards continued, in 1521 Cortez captured the capital of Tenochtitlan, and then the entire empire. Thus ended the era of the Aztecs and began the era of New Spain.
At the beginning of the 16th century, when the Aztec capital was the largest city in Central America, the capital became the center of South America. incas Cuzco. The Incas settled there in the 12th century. The Inca state stretched for thousands of kilometers in the Andes.
The engineering prowess of the Incas, more than their weapons, brought them success in their conquests. Their roads in length and quality were much superior to those of Rome: one of them was almost 2,500 km long. However, it was not only engineering thought and political foresight that allowed them to create such a large country. Like the Aztecs, they believed that they were entrusted with a divine mission to spread the light of the sun god.
The state was headed by an unlimited ruler - the Supreme Inca. He ruled in the name of God and had absolute power. Blood relatives of the Incas, who called themselves "sons of the Sun" (the Sun was the main god of the Incas), held the highest positions in the state.
The nobility of the conquered peoples completely obeyed the "sons of the Sun", adopted their language and ruled over their subjects according to the laws and customs of the Incas. With its help, the Incas controlled the whole country, right down to every peasant household.
The ideology of the Incas was actively spread. Children of the "sons of the Sun" were trained in special schools. In the absence of a written language, they memorized information about religion, the order of government, the laws and customs of the Incas.
The population lived in communities. The community member did not have the right to leave the boundaries of the territory of the settlement without the permission of the authorities. The arable land was divided into three parts: the harvest from one went to the priests, from the other to the Supreme Inca, and only one third of the harvest remained with the community members.
The state system provided for the care of orphans, food storage facilities. From state barns, food was given out to soldiers and officials, and in case of crop failures and disasters - to the victims. The families of soldiers and those who left for public works were supported by the community.
All those who were served were obliged to work where it was indicated: either on the ground, or on construction, or to serve in the army. Laziness was considered a serious crime, even children of five years old had to work.
Postal communication was established between parts of the vast country. Specially trained messengers-runners, who were on duty in pairs on each section of the road, conveyed messages from places to the capital. On the roads, inns and stores of supplies were located for supplying troops and officials on the move.
The last rulers of the Incas declared themselves not only the descendants of the sun god, but also the god himself. The center of Cusco was rebuilt around the Temple of the Sun, the walls of which were covered with gold.
The Inca Empire was overrun by a handful of Spanish soldiers led by F. Pizarro. This defeat was partly a consequence of the Inca's belief in the invulnerability of the ruler of Atahualpa. All the power of the Incas was concentrated in their loyalty to the emperor, and when he was captured, his subjects were confused, not knowing who to obey. In addition, the Incas, like the Aztecs, did not have such weapons that could withstand cannons and cavalry. For 50 years, the Spanish conquistadors expanded the borders of the empire so much that it was 2 times larger than Europe.

The Incas, Aztecs and Mayans are mysterious tribes that have disappeared from the face of the earth. Until now, scientific excavations and all kinds of research are being conducted in order to study their life and the reasons for their disappearance. In this article we will tell you about one interesting tribe. The Aztecs lived in the 14th century in what is now Mexico City.

Where did they come from

The population of this Indian people was about 1.3 million people. According to legend, the homeland of the Aztecs was the island of Astlan (translated as "the country of herons"). Initially, the members of this tribe were hunters, but then, having settled on the land, they began to engage in agricultural and craft work, although it was a rather warlike tribe. The Aztecs, in order to start leading, searched for suitable lands for quite a long time. They did not act at random, but in accordance with the instructions of their god Huitzilopochtli. In his opinion, the Aztecs should have seen an eagle sitting on a cactus and devouring the earth.

This happened

Despite all the strangeness of this sign, after 165 years of wandering around the Mexican land, the Aztecs still managed to meet this mysterious bird with unusual behavior. In the place where this happened, the tribe began to settle down. The Aztecs named their first settlement Tenochtitlan (translated as "a fruit tree growing from stone"). Another name for these lands is Mexico City. Interestingly, the Aztec civilization was created by several tribes. Scientists believe that at least seven tribes who spoke related languages, the most common of which was Nahuatl, took part in this. Now more than 1 million people speak it and similar dialects.

Bottom and top

Can the Aztec civilization serve as an example for the modern organization of society? Fighters for equality would certainly not have liked the Aztec division into aristocrats and plebeians. Moreover, members of high society possessed all the best. They lived in luxurious palaces, wore magnificent clothes, ate delicious food, had many privileges, and held high positions. The plebeians worked on the land, traded, hunted, fished and lived modestly in special quarters. But after death, everyone received an equal chance to get into the underworld, the abode of the goddess of death Miktlan, or go to a better world. Since the warriors in the world of the Aztecs enjoyed special respect, those who died on the battlefield could accompany the sun from sunrise to zenith, just like those who were sacrificed. The honor of accompanying the sun from zenith to sunset was given to women who died in childbirth. Those who were killed by lightning or drowned can also be considered "lucky". They went to the heavenly place where Tlalocan lived.

Fathers and Sons

The tribe referred to in this article has placed a lot of emphasis on the education of children. Until the age of 1, they were brought up at home, and after that they had to attend special schools. Moreover, both boys and girls, although the latter, most often, after getting married, sat at home and looked after the household and children. Commoners were trained in craft skills and military science. Aristocrats studied history, astronomy, social studies, rituals, government. The children of members of high society were not white-handed. They worked in public works, cleaned up churches, and participated in ceremonies. Honor, respect and various privileges awaited the old men.

Aztec culture

It is not in vain that this lost civilization attracts attention to itself in our days. The Aztecs were excellent masters of their craft, so buildings, sculptures, stone and clay products, fabrics, jewelry were of high quality. The Aztecs were especially distinguished by the ability to make a variety of products from the bright feathers of tropical birds. Also famous are the Aztec mosaics and ornaments. The aristocrats were fond of literature. Many of them could have composed a poem or written an oral work. Legends, tales, poems, descriptions of the rituals of this people have survived to this day. Book paper was made from bark. The calendars created by this tribe are also interesting. The Aztecs used a solar and ritual calendar. Agricultural work and religious work were carried out in accordance with the solar calendar. It consisted of 365 days. The second calendar, which includes 260 days, was used for predictions. The fate of a person was judged by the day he was born. Until now, many treasure hunters dream of finding Aztec gold. And at one time they lived very richly. This is evidenced by the stories of the Spanish conquerors. They say that the wealthy Aztecs, especially in the capital Tenochtitlan, ate and slept on gold. Golden thrones were installed for their gods, at the foot of which there were also gold bars.

Aztec religion

People from this tribe believed that there are several gods who control the forces of nature and the fate of people. They had gods of water, maize, rain, sun, war and many others. The Aztecs built huge, ornate temples. The largest was dedicated to the main deity Tenochtitlan and was 46 meters high. In the temples, ceremonies were held, as well as sacrifices. The Aztecs also had an idea of ​​the soul. They believed that the heart and blood vessels were its habitat in humans. The beating of the pulse was taken for its manifestation. According to the Aztecs, the gods put the soul into the human body even at the time when he is in the womb. They also believed that objects and animals have a soul. The Aztecs imagined that there was a special bond between them, allowing them to interact on an intangible level. Also, the Aztecs thought that every person has a magical double. His death led to the death of a person. As a sacrifice, the Aztecs offered their own blood to their idols. For this, a rite of bloodletting was performed. In general, the Aztecs made human sacrifices in huge numbers. It is a known fact that during the illumination of the Great Temple, 2,000 people were sacrificed. The Aztecs thought about the end of the world and believed that a large amount of blood could appease the gods and maintain the world's balance.

The Aztec civilization perished because of the greed of the Spaniards. It happened at the beginning of the 16th century, but the story of the life of a tribe that disappeared from the face of the earth still excites the imagination. Whether the Aztec gold brings happiness is up to everyone to decide for himself.

The Incas. Mayan. Aztecs. The names of these peoples, the locations of their states are often confused. Historians, despite their neighborhood, believe that they developed completely independently.
The Incas. State - Tahuantisuyu. The western coast of South America, starting from the northern territories of modern Chile upwards. One thousand two hundred years BC - the first ruler of Manco Capaca, the last one to lead the revolt against the Spaniards - Tupac Omaru (1570-1572). The Inca banner looked like a rainbow. There is no monetary system, benefits are distributed in accordance with the established procedure.
Aztecs (self-name of the mexico, hence the current "Mexico"). Came to the south of Mexico from the North of the continent in the thirteenth century. The Aztecs (North American Indians are not at all such savages as the European colonialists imagined) built Tenochtitlan, the future Mexico City on an island infested with snakes, and became the rulers of local tribes. But in 1519 the Aztecs saw the Spaniards, and after six years their empire ceased to exist. Presumably, by this time the Indians were 95% mowed down by smallpox and chickenpox, introduced by Columbus in 1492, and spread to both continents. A huge, culturally equal to Egypt, unknown, literally Martian world, has moved into the realm of legends.
For a warrior and a priest, it is considered quite permissible to write, at their leisure, sublime verses. Let's listen to three excerpts from the author's hymns of the Nahua ethno-linguistic group - to which our Aztecs also belong:

May our land be forever!
Yes, the mountains are indestructible!
so says Ayokuan Kuezpaltsin
here in Tlaxcale, in Huesocinco
Let them feed everyone without exception
and ruddy maize, and cocoa.
May the Earth be forever!
(by Ayokuan Kuezpaltsin)

We are drunk in Michuacan, the Meshiki,
we were called to a feast, we went to get our spoils
we came and were completely drunk from the battle.
... And they saw how our soldiers fled
how the gold quivered and the quetzal feather banners faded
If only the warriors did not become prisoners
Hurry up - so that this does not happen to you
If the young warriors become prisoners,
they will be sacrificed, condemned to the slaughter
if this happens, what will we do?
We roar as fiercely as jaguars
we, the eagles, the old men, we will call the eagles
avoid captivity, fear the slaughter
Hurry up - so that this does not happen to you!
("Song of the Old Men", by the commander Aishakatl)

I came, I get up
and now I will sing songs.
I will grow songs
for you my friends.
I am the voice of God, I own colors.
I am Temilocin and I came
make friends here

(Temilocin from Tlatelolco)

Mayan. The territory is just south of the future possessions of the Aztecs. The beginning of civilization is a thousand years BC. By the ninth century, Mayan society was in decline, the cause of which, as follows from the conclusions of geologists, is a long-term drought caused by a change in ocean currents. Remained of the truncated pyramid-temples, a complex irrigation system and a perfect calendar.

1. City of the Incas, Machu Picchu, the territory of modern Peru, the height of the location - 2.5 km. Polygonal masonry is characteristic - stones of various shapes are precisely adjusted to each other, like puzzles or mosaics. The Incas also built pyramids, but these temples never reached the grandeur of those of the Maya.
2. One of the many Mayan pyramids, in present-day Mexico. Apparently, they were not originally intended for performing bloody rituals. However, the Aztecs who came to these lands used them (as the Spaniards claim) for mass executions of prisoners of war, broadcasting horror throughout their habitat.
3. Angkor (Angko - Khmer. "City of Capitals"), the territory of present-day Cambodia. Built at the beginning of the 9th century. AD, existed as a settlement until the 15th century. The largest city in the world in the Middle Ages (and now, in size comparable only to the American Los Angeles), covers an area of ​​24 by 8 km.
Each new ruler establishes a new center of the capital, marking it with a huge five-tower temple, symbolizing the sacred Middle Mount Meru, until, finally, the construction site depletes all reserves of tuff and sandstone in the country. In 1431, the Khmer state lost the war to neighboring Siam. Nearly a million Angkor residents scatter into the jungle or die on the spot at the hands of Siamese soldiers.
Angkor Wat is the palace and temple complex of the capital, now, despite all the efforts of archaeologists and reenactors, it is covered with vegetation and is practically uninhabited.
4. One of the centers of the capital, reconstruction on a smaller scale. The real Angkor Wat, an earthly paradise, is surrounded by an extensive square-plan garden and a system of wide (190 m) canals.
Full volume with illustrations - Liters History of almost only-1