Creation of public theaters, libraries, museums (kunstkamera).

Theater under Peter I.

As was said earlier, works of fiction in the proper sense were almost never published under Peter. The government was not able to pay enough attention to it. However, one area of ​​art and literature attracted the intense attention of Peter and his collaborators. It was a theater. The fact is that the theater could become a powerful mass means of promoting Peter's political actions and the new culture. The book was, compared to the theater, a means of education and upbringing that was inaccessible to the Russian people of that time. She was expensive; In addition, there were still too few literate people in Russia. Meanwhile, the theater did not require literacy and could be publicly accessible at a price. Many thousands of spectators could pass through it. Peter understood this and decided to create a theater in Russia, previously unknown to the general public.

Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, performances began to be staged in Moscow; but it was only a court theater, located in the palace and designed for a narrow circle of spectators: the royal family and the king’s associates. Peter did not need such a theater. He wanted to organize the theater as a means of mass propaganda and a means of educating large sections of urban residents. In 1701, Peter sent a special person abroad with the task of inviting one of the good Western theater troupes to Moscow. With great difficulty, we managed to conclude an agreement in Danzig with the actor and entrepreneur of one of the German traveling troupes, Johann Kunst.

He undertook to recruit a troupe, come with it to Moscow and “please the Tsar’s Majesty with all his plans, fun and always kind, ready and proper.” The following year, Kunst and the actors he recruited arrived in Moscow. It was necessary to build a theater building, and Peter made an order about this. But the king was at that time far from his capital; he fought with the Swedes near Noteburg. And the Moscow boyars and officials, who in the old days considered the theater a demonic playground, did not sympathize with the tsar’s new idea. They began to sabotage Peter’s order and delayed the construction of the theater, embarrassed, of course, by the fact that Peter ordered the construction of a “comedy mansion” on Red Square, near the Kremlin, in a “holy” place, and this seemed to them blasphemy. They referred, as usual, to “objective” reasons: either doubts about Kunst himself, doubts about the play he was preparing to stage, or doubts about the place chosen to build the theater. The king, who perfectly understood the tricks of his officials, demanded that they carry out the order. It was costly to argue with Peter, and the theater was built.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	Theater under Peter I
Rubric (thematic category)	Story

Peter I understood that the theater had to be the most important link in the overall complex of his reform plans.

In 1697 ᴦ. V Western Europe The “great embassy” departed, which included Peter himself under the name of Pyotr Mikhailovich. In Amsterdam (Holland) he sees the ballet “Cupid”, in London – the tragedy of N. Lee “The Rival Queen or the Death of Alexander the Great” (with the participation of the first actor of the Betterton troupe). In Vienna, Peter attends the Italian opera and a large masquerade ball. All this convinces him of the special artistic power of the theater and its exceptional importance for society. For this reason, Peter decides to create a theater in Russia.

In 1702 ᴦ. An Anglo-German group of 8 actors arrived in Moscow under the direction of Johann Kunst. The performances took place in the house of Admiral Lefort in the German settlement. The actors played on German. Such a theater turned out to be a theater for the elite. Peter wanted to organize a Russian public theater that would be understandable to a wide range of spectators; in this regard, it was decided to send 10 Russian children to study with Kunst, “no matter what class they come from.” This is how the second acting school was opened.

Construction began then first public theater in Moscow, in the Kremlin, to the left of the Nikolsky Gate. The clerks from the Ambassadorial Prikaz tried to prevent this. Then Peter ordered the construction of a “comedy mansion” on Red Square. The clerks opposed this too, and at the same time they tried to discredit Kunst. They offered to stage a “comedy house” on Neglinnaya Street. But Peter's will was adamant. The building accommodated several hundred spectators, but this “hall” was never sold out. The public went to the theater reluctantly. The decree not to collect taxes from persons walking around the city at night did not help either.

The reason for the unpopularity of the theater was its isolation from Russian life, which was evident in the repertoire. These were plays by third-rate German playwrights of the 18th century, devoid of deep ideological content, ineffective with pompous rhetoric. And the plays of Calderon and Moliere were translated and altered, far from the original. Performances were often performed in German. And the translated plays were not in the modern spoken language, but in a language close to Church Slavonic, which also made understanding difficult.

In 1703 ᴦ. Kunst died, his troupe was sent home.

Since 1704 ᴦ. Otto Furst (Artemy Firsht) becomes the head of the theater business; Two troupes perform under his leadership - Russian and German. The German troupe features female actors.

Some names of actors are known in the Russian troupe - Fyodor Buslaev, Semyon Smirnov, Nikita Kondratov, etc.

Russian actors complained that Fürst did not teach them anything and could not teach them, since “a foreigner does not know their Russian behavior.” At the same time, the actors were punished for these complaints.

The theatrical business itself is gradually falling into decline, performances are no longer attracting audiences. And in 1706 ᴦ. Fürst's enterprise is closed.

By creating a theater in Russia, Peter intended to achieve the following goals:

1. The theater was supposed to promote his reformist and political activities;

2. The theater was supposed to help familiarize Russian society with European culture, ᴛ.ᴇ. perform cultural and educational functions.

But the theater failed to cope with any of these tasks. The political tasks of the Russian Tsar were alien to the German actors. Their repertoire did not include plays on biblical subjects, which Russian audiences had previously been accustomed to. The theater played exclusively secular plays - adaptations of comedies by Moliere, English, Spanish, and French playwrights. It was thought that these plays would introduce the Russian public to the latest in European drama. The book industry in Russia at that time was poorly developed, there were not enough literate people, and theater in these conditions was supposed to serve as a means of popularizing fiction, as well as instill in the viewer high feelings, grace in their manifestation, delicacy in communication, etc. . But the theater also did not fulfill this cultural and educational task, because the original plays were arbitrarily shortened and simplified, scenes of battles, murders, and executions were brought to the fore. The viewer often had to guess what was happening on stage - this is how the abbreviated content of the plays was distorted.

May 16, 1703 ᴦ. Petersburg was founded under the walls of the newly captured Swedish fortress Nyenschanz, and construction of the new capital of the Russian state began. In 1707 ᴦ. The royal court moves here.
Posted on ref.rf
And since 1712 ᴦ. St. Petersburg officially becomes the capital of Russia, and all government institutions move here.

What about the theater?

Another attempt to use German comedians to create a public theater was made by Peter in St. Petersburg in 1719-1722. Mann's troupe gave performances here. But this attempt also failed for the same reasons as the Moscow one.

In Moscow, the theater building itself ("comedy hall") from 1707 to 1713. was already in a dilapidated state, and in 1713 ᴦ. it is finally demolished. But Peter 1’s sister Natalya Alekseevna orders “all the theatrical equipment” to be transported to her palace, to the village of Preobrazhenskoye. A Russian acting troupe also came here, and the performances continued.

In 1714 ᴦ. Natalya Alekseevna moves to St. Petersburg, to her palace on the banks of the Neva, and next to it she orders the construction of a theater.
Posted on ref.rf
The troupe consisted of 10 Russian actors (from the village of Preobrazhenskoye), who had never been abroad. The repertoire of this theater consisted of plays of spiritual content and plays adapted from translated secular novels. Several plays were written by Natalya Alekseevna herself. This repertoire is an important link between the translated repertoire under Gregory-Kunst-Fürst and the future Russian repertoire - plays by Sumarokov, Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Ozerov.

In Moscow, the theater business did not stop. It is continued by Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna (the widow of Ivan Alekseevich, Peter’s brother) and her eldest daughter Ekaterina Ioannovna. Under their leadership, performances are organized in the village of Izmailovo, in the palace of Praskovya Fedorovna. The first Russian serf actors and court amateurs performed here, incl. ʼʼnoble ladies and maidensʼʼ, that is the first Russian actresses. It was a semi-public – semi-court theater, which turned out to be the forerunner of future high-society performances. It ceased to exist with the death of Praskovya Fedorovna (1723).

With the death of Peter (1725 ᴦ.), state concern for the development of Russian professional theater was interrupted for a long time. But interest in the theater no longer disappears.

Theater under Peter I - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Theater under Peter I" 2017, 2018.

- III. Radio relay communications

II. Wireless communications I. Wired communications Ø City telephone communication Ø Direct telephone communication (intercom) Ø Radiotelephone communication (Altai) Ø Inductive communication (EKV communication “Diston”, “Nalmes”) Ø... .

- Consumption of materials per 1 km of road with asphalt concrete coating type IV

Table 15 Table 14 Table 13 Table 12 Table 11 Roads Traffic at compound interest in different years of operation Values ​​of coefficients m, K0, K0m with increasing intensity Table... .

- III. Time 90 minutes.

Lesson No. 5 Braking system Topic No. 8 Control mechanisms On the design of automotive equipment Conducting a group lesson Plan - outline Teacher of the POPON cycle, Lieutenant Colonel S.A. Fedotov "____"... .

After the short-term flourishing of theatrical art in Russia under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and the works of Johann Gottfried Gregory, a time of oblivion of the theater began, which lasted more than 25 years. Tsar Peter I, at the first opportunity, tried to resume his father's theatrical business. During his travels abroad, in Vienna, Amsterdam, London, Peter visited theaters, including performances of Italian opera, and perfectly understood the importance of theatrical performances for cultural life European society, which he built in Russia.

Like once Colonel Nikolai von Staden, Captain Jan Splavsky, now an employee of the Ambassadorial Order, was sent abroad with instructions to recruit a group of actors and musicians. In 1701, in Danzig (Gdansk), Splavsky met the entrepreneur of one of the theater troupes, Johann Christian Kunst, but the first attempt was unsuccessful; the actors refused to go at the last moment. The next year, Splavsky and his assistant Sergei Lyapunov nevertheless concluded a contract with Kunst, whose duties were to “amuse His Royal Majesty with all inventions and fun and for this purpose to always be cheerful, sober and ready to be,” and brought him to Russia in June 1702. Along with Kunst came his wife, Anna Kunst, the first actress on the Russian stage, and 7 actors.

Upon arrival, Kunst was given the position of “His Royal Majesty Comedy Ruler” and he, after complaining to his accompanying people that they did not give him time to recruit actors who were “skilled in singing acts” (i.e. in operas), began for the construction of a theater in Moscow. Boyar Fyodor Alekseevich Golovin, head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, was appointed responsible for the theater business. A location was chosen for the theater on Red Square; at first, the clerks of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, in whose jurisdiction the construction was located, did not show much zeal and in every possible way refused to carry out this work, but after Peter’s shout, the theater was built in 2 months and was ready by the end of 1702. The decor inside was luxurious for that time, the costumes were luxurious. The theater was public and could accommodate up to 400 spectators, performances were given twice a week - Monday and Thursday and, by royal decree, on these days the gates in the city and in the Kremlin were not locked until the performance ended. The cost of seats was 3,5,6,10 kopecks, everyone could visit it.

In order for the performances to be held in Russian, a theater school was organized, where 10 “Russians of all ranks, fit for this work” were sent. Following the first actors, 7 musicians were discharged from Hamburg and further recruitment and staffing of the orchestra was carried out, as well as training of Russian musicians. It is known that in order to organize the opera, Kunst demanded additional expenses for decorations and mechanisms, but there is no exact evidence that a full-fledged opera was held in this theater. However, many of Kunst's plays included arias, choruses and orchestral accompaniment.

However, Kunst did not have to manage the theater for long; in 1703 he died and the troupe was dissolved, leaving only his widow and one of the actors who were entrusted to continue his work, and the theater school. In 1704, a new director of the theater was found, Otto First, who had nothing to do with the theater, but was a goldsmith and knew the Russian language well. Under his leadership, since 1705, all productions began only in Russian. But he was a weak manager; actors and school students complained about him for his wild life and ignorance of Russian life.

From the first years of its existence, the Moscow theater began to decline; the main reason was the move of the royal court to the new capital, St. Petersburg. In 1707, the theater closed and all its property was transported to Preobrazhenskoye, so to speak, Russian dramatic art returned to its roots - to the site of the first theater of Johann Gregory. The theater from a public one became a private theater, first of Tsarevna Natalya Alekseevna, and after her departure to St. Petersburg it was transported to Izmailovo for the dowager Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna and existed there until 1723. Following the example of members of the royal family, and some even earlier, boyars and nobles organized their own serf theaters, in which, in addition to peasants, artists visiting from Europe also performed and worked.

However, the need for a public theater in Moscow remained and an attempt to revive it was made by the head of the Moscow Hospital on the Yauza, Dr. Bidlo (Bydlov). He tried with all his might to lure students from the Slavic-Latin Academy to his surgical school, and he succeeded. The means also included theatrical art, which the students of the academy were keen on, because their traditions included “school activities”. Performances in this theater were given on holidays, the repertoire was academic with singing and music, i.e. a kind of opera, and secular subjects were also staged, including works by Johann Gregory. The theater existed until at least 1742 and was open to the public.

At this time in St. Petersburg, Peter I paid much less attention to the theater; worries about how to make the Russian state stronger and the Russian people poorer left practically no time for pleasure, and his health began to deteriorate. However, theatrical life developed magnificently here too; his younger sister Natalya Alekseevna was a passionate theatergoer and brought with her a theater troupe from Moscow, in which visiting artists also performed. Peter, for his part, was dissatisfied with the modern repertoire; he demanded from actors short plays that would have no more than three acts and would not be too sad, not too serious, not too funny. He wanted the plays to be performed in Russian, and ordered to hire Poles and Czechs instead of Germans (including for the purpose of economy), but concerns about the government distracted from his good intentions. In 1723, a group from Germany arrived in St. Petersburg under the direction of a certain Mann, who was patronized by Catherine I. The theater was located somewhere on the Moika and, according to a contemporary, the troupe consisted of “very bad comedians, who, however, had no shortage of spectators.”

It has not been precisely proven whether full-fledged operas were included in the repertoire of theaters of Peter the Great’s time, but the undoubted fact of the existence of a handwritten libretto of the opera “Daphne” has been established - an echo of the world’s first opera, staged by Giulio Caccini and Jacopo Peri, and widely distributed throughout Europe; the libretto was translated from Italian to Polish, from Polish to Russian at the beginning of the 18th century. It is unknown whether "Daphne" was performed on stage.

The theater was revived to a new life during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna, who spent almost 20 years in Courland and loved to have fun. Her reign was marked by huge expenditures on entertainment events, including the theater. During her reign, the first opera took place in Russia, the genre fell in love with the audience and gained a foothold on the Russian stage - the Italian period in the history of opera in Russia began.

Since the 18th century, foreign theater troupes, mainly French and Italian, have worked in Moscow. These were private enterprises. They built their own premises or privately equipped some other people's buildings.

In 1702, Peter I built the first public theater in Russia on Red Square near the Nikolsky Gate of the Kremlin, which existed until 1706 or 1707 and was called the “Comedial Temple”. A long one-story building was built for it. The auditorium could accommodate up to 400 people. Performances were given on Mondays and Thursdays and were accompanied by music and stage effects. The theater was intended for performances by foreign (primarily German) actors. This was the troupe of I. Kunst, who soon organized both the first Russian troupe and the first drama school in Russia. Then he was also replaced by the German entrepreneur O. Fürst (according to other spellings, Otto Firsht). Under him and during the following years, only foreigners performed on the court stage in St. Petersburg and Moscow: Italian opera with ballet by F. Araya, German troupes of Mann, K. Ackermann, K. Neuber, French - under the direction of Serigny and others. B 1704 year, Russian actors performed three plays in their native language at the theater. However, we must take into account that these spectacles were more reminiscent of a market booth. True theaters were understood as the performances of foreign comedians.

RUSSIAN THEATER (THEATRE OF RUSSIA)

On February 8, 1673, at Maslenitsa, a new spectacle took place - a ballet based on the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. The actors were taught the art of ballet by engineer Nikolai Lim. By the summer (from May 15 to June 16), the German actors were replaced by Russians. History has preserved their names - Vaska Meshalkin, Nikolai and Rodion Ivanov, Kuzma Zhuravlev, Timofey Maksimov, Luka Stepanov and others - because they signed a written appeal to the Tsar. “Merciful Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich! Please make us your servants, the sovereign ordered us to make daily food for our great sovereign’s salary, so that we, being your servants in that comedy business, will not die of hunger. Tsar Sovereign, please have mercy.” The king granted permission to give “4 money” per day to each of his comedians.

Performances became one of the most favorite entertainments at the Moscow court. There were 26 Russian actors. Boys played female roles. The role of Esther in the Artaxerxes performance was played by Blumentrost's son. Both foreigners and Russian actors were trained in a special school, which was opened on September 21, 1672 in the courtyard of Gregory’s house in the German settlement. It turned out to be difficult to train Russian and foreign students, and in the second half of 1675 two theater schools began to operate: at the Polish court - for foreigners, in Meshchanskaya Sloboda - for Russians. Theatre's repertoire: Artaxerxes's play (1672), Comedy about Tobias the Younger (1673), Judith (1674), Temir-Aksakov's play (1675), Small cool comedy about Joseph (1675), Comedy about David and Goliath (1676), Comedy about Bacchus with Venus (1676), etc.

Gregory died on February 16, 1675. Yuri Gyutner became his successor, from him the leadership passed to Blumentrost and bachelor Ivan Volosheninov. Later, on the recommendation of the Smolensk governor, Prince Golitsyn, Latin teacher Stefan Chizhinsky became the leader.

In 1676 Alexey Mikhailovich died. The inspirer of the idea of ​​the theater, boyar Matveev, was exiled. On December 15, 1677, the royal decree followed: “The apothecary ordered the chambers that were occupied with comedy to cleanse and what was in those chambers, organs and prospects of all kinds of comedy supplies; take everything to Nikita Ivanovich Romanov’s yard.”

Back in the 19th century. I.E. Zabelin noted the similarity of the plot of the Comedy about Esther with the fate of Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina. The play defended the Tsarina's tutor, boyar Matveev, from the palace boyar Khitrovo. The notes of Matveev’s son confirm this version. Boyar Khitrovo was one of the first to promote the liquidation of the theater and theater school and was among those who announced the royal decree on the closure of the theater.

One of the first playwrights under Alexei Mikhailovich was Simeon of Polotsk. His plays differed from school ones in their closeness to life and the absence of allegorical images and were lyrical works. The Tsar was attracted by the possibilities of political propaganda in “declamations”; he invited the learned monk to Moscow. Polotsky becomes a teacher at the Zaikonospasskaya school, and also begins to teach the royal children. He organized a printing house and drew up a project for the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Under his influence, the king himself tried to write poetry. It was with his plays that the Russian national literary theater began. In the play Shepherd's Conversations, simple monologue recitation was replaced by a real developed dialogue, an attempt was made to develop images of shepherds: one is simple-minded, the other is smart, etc. But the characters did not yet have their own names and did not receive complete outlines. The comedy parable of the prodigal son developed the gospel tale. The play About King Nechadnezzar, about the golden body and about the three youths who were not burned in the cave was a reworking of the Cave action. From the biography of Simeon of Polotsk it is known that under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich he continued to write recitations that were performed by his students, which meant the continued existence of the court theater of Alexei Mikhailovich. Other historians argue that the theater ceased to exist and was revived at the beginning of Peter's era, since it was aimed at a very limited circle of courtiers.

The appearance of the first court theater coincided with the birth of Peter I (1672), who as a child saw the last performances of this theater. Having ascended the throne and begun the enormous work of Europeanizing Russia, Peter I could not help but turn to the theater as a means of promoting his innovative political and social ideas.

Petrovsky Theater.

From the end of the 17th century. In Europe, masquerades became fashionable, which appealed to the young Peter I. In 1698, dressed in the costume of a Friesland peasant, he participated in the Viennese masquerade. Peter decided to popularize his reforms and innovations through the art of theater. He planned to build a theater in Moscow, but not for a select few, but open to everyone. In 1698–1699, a puppet theater troupe worked in Moscow, headed by Jan Splavsky and whom Peter in 1701 instructed to invite comedians from abroad. In 1702, the troupe of Johann Kunst (Kunsht) came to Russia; on August 6, 1702, boyar Golovin announced the royal decree “On the construction of a comedy theater in the Kremlin city.” By the end of the year, on Red Square, on the left side of the Nikolsky Gate, a “comedy wooden temple was built, and in it there is a theater, and choirs and benches and doors and windows, and inside its ceiling is lined and the roof is covered, and the outside is covered with planks.” While the building was being built, performances were held in the German Settlement in the house of General Lefort, where the theater was built. The main disadvantage of Kunst’s troupe was that the actors did not know Russian and thereby limited the circle of their spectators, which did not suit Peter in any way, because There was no national fun. There were eight people in the Kunst Theater. Under their leadership, a Russian theater school was opened. On Christmastide 1702, the opening of the “comedy temple” took place. According to documents, it is known that on December 23, 1702 the play was performed in Russian. Performances were performed twice a week: German ones alternated with Russian ones. “Khoromina” on Red Square had a length of 18, a width of 10 fathoms (36 × 20 m), and was illuminated by tallow candles. The technical equipment of the stage was at the highest level for that time. At the end of 1703, Kunst died, and his widow Anna and actor Bandler took over the management of the theater and school. They were unable to cope with the troupe, and in March 1704 they were replaced by Artemy Firsht (Otto Fürst). However, the problems remained the same: the majority of the audience did not understand the Germans, and the Russian students could not satisfy the tastes of the public. In 1706 the theater closed. The following plays have been preserved from the repertoire of the Kunst-Fürst Theater: Scipio Africanus, the Roman leader, and the destruction of Safonizba, Queen of Numidia; The Honest Traitor, or Friederico von Popley and Aloysia, his wife; Prince Pikel-Gyaring, or Jodelet, his own prison inmate; A comedy about Frantapis, king of Epirus, and Mirandon, his son, and others. Some names of Russian artists of the Russian troupe have been preserved: Fyodor Buslavev, Semyon Smirnov, Nikita Kondratov, Vasily Telenkov (nicknamed Shmaga-drunk), etc. The theater was paid. They paid from 3 to 10 kopecks for seats. Huts were built nearby for people coming from afar. On winter and summer evenings the theater attracted 400–500 spectators, and in the fall and spring about 50. All this did not satisfy Peter. In 1707, “by the personal decree of the Great Sovereign,” the “comedy temple” on Red Square began to be dismantled. The theatrical reputation of this place will remain: under Anna Ivanovna, a new “comedy house” will be built here.

In 1720, Peter made a new attempt to create a theater in Russia, but now in St. Petersburg. He orders “to hire a company of comedians from Prague who can speak Slavic or Czech. In St. Petersburg, the initiative to create a theater belongs to Natalya Alekseevna. At the end of 1723, Mann's group arrived, but the performances were performed in German. Peter often attends their performances, but the troupe does not live up to his expectations. Peter “once promised a reward to comedians if they composed a touching play, without this love, pasted in everywhere, which he was already tired of: and a cheerful farce without buffoonery.” Even encouragement had no results. The troupe's cast was weak, and the repertoire was old-fashioned. During this period, an important role was played by the city democratic theater of students of the Moscow hospital, led by Dr. Bidlo. He received students from the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. In 1719–1722, 108 students transferred from the academy to the medical school. They brought with them experience of participating in school plays at the academy. The theater was located in a barn. It was visited by both Russians and foreigners, and Peter himself attended performances. The repertoire of the hospital theater was varied, but the traditions of the school theater were still very strong. The latest information about this theater dates back to the 1740s.

Under Peter I, the beginning of performances in Siberia was laid by Metropolitan of Tobolsk Filofei Leshchinsky. In a handwritten chronicle dated 1727 it is said: “Philofey was a lover of theatrical performances, he made glorious and rich comedies, when he should be a spectator at a comedy for a collector, then he, Vladyka, made cathedral bells for the collection of reverence, and the theaters were between the Cathedral and St. Sergius churches and transported, where the people were going." The innovation of Metropolitan Philotheus was continued by his successors, some of them were pets Kyiv Academy.

Peter failed to create a permanent public theater, and both Moscow and St. Petersburg attempts did not produce serious results. With his death, state concern for the development of Russian professional theater is interrupted. The court theater experienced a period of stagnation until Anna Ivanovna’s accession to the throne, when there was a noticeable revival of theatrical life at court. Italian comedians, actor Tomaso Ristori and composer Reinhard Keyser, will arrive for her coronation in 1737. Winter Palace a theater hall and stage will be built.

Anna Ioannovna spent enormous sums on various celebrations, balls, masquerades, receptions for ambassadors, fireworks, illuminations and theatrical processions. At her court, the clownish culture revived, continuing the traditions of the “sedentary” buffoons - she had giants and dwarves, jesters and firecrackers. The most famous theatrical celebration was the “curious” wedding of the jester Prince Golitsyn with the Kalmyk firecracker Buzheninova in the Ice House on February 6, 1740.

Related information.