The best inventions of Leonardo da Vinci, ahead of their time. Leonardo da Vinci and his dreams of flying Paragliding Leonardo da Vinci

Wheel project with four crossbows

Leonardo's drawings

Art and Science

Drawing of a large cannon placed on a carriage

This drawing depicts the courtyard of the fortress, filled with ammunition, numerous cannons, gun carriages and cannonballs. In the center of the picture is a large structure that is used to hold a huge cannon on its carriage. The weapon is operated by a large group of naked men. In the foreground we see a stand for a cannon. Vinci hoped that in Milan he would have the opportunity to work on the creation of similar machines, peaceful or military, but none of his projects were ever brought to life.

Drawing of articulated wings

After detailed research into the field of flying machines controlled solely by the power of the muscles of the human body, Leonardo tried to come close to creating a mechanical machine for flight that would be controlled only by the muscles of the pilot's legs. The engineer was convinced that muscle strength was enough for a person to rise into the air.

Model of a lever imparting rotational motion to the wing

These drawings show a model of a lever for controlling the wings. It appeared as a result of studying the technique of flight, which Leonardo did for many years. In the picture you can see the “insides” of a complex mechanism; the picture is accompanied by a detailed description.

An aircraft that follows the structure of a bird's wings, with solid bridges

The wings of Leonardo's aircraft were based on the structure of the wings of birds and bats. To make the pilot comfortable during the flight, Leonardo assigns him a place in the center of the machine, behind the wing mechanism.

Drawing of a flying car

Throughout his life, the master studied the mechanism of bird wings. He was particularly interested in the proportions of wings and their functioning, and he used the knowledge he gained in the design of flying machines.

Conclusion

Of course, these are not all of Leonardo's drawings that deserve attention, but they are all separate works and can be assessed outside the context of the author and his other works.

Leonardo's drawings and drawings updated: September 11, 2017 by: Gleb

On April 15, 1452, a man was born whose name became synonymous with genius in everything. Leonardo da Vinci was an excellent artist, talented architect, and anatomist. But his technical inventions were several centuries ahead of their time.

Leonardo da Vinci is known primarily as an artist, the creator of the famous “La Gioconda” and “The Last Supper”. His contemporaries valued above all his artistic talent. But Leonardo also had a great engineering mind, which people who lived with him at the same time could not appreciate. Apparently because most of da Vinci's inventions could not be brought to life using instruments of the 15th - 16th centuries. And if Leonardo’s inventions had been realized, then cars would have driven along medieval streets, aircraft would have hovered in the sky, and tanks and machine guns would have been used in medieval battles.

All the technical ideas of the genius remained only on paper - in drawings, drawings and detailed descriptions. Leonardo systematized his scientific works on more than 5,000 pages into code books. For some reason, the entries in the manuscripts were encrypted with a kind of “secret script” - written from right to left in a mirror font. Only five centuries later, enthusiasts and admirers of the talent of the great Renaissance man, after reading the manuscripts, tried to bring da Vinci’s ideas to life by constructing mechanisms according to his drawings. And all the machines worked!

Diving suit

The diving suit was invented by Leonardo for the Venetians, who constantly had to repel naval military attacks. It was supposed to dress up soldiers in these waterproof suits and send them underwater to flood enemy ships, damaging their bottoms. Leonardo's diving suit was made of leather, the helmet was equipped with glass lenses, and the diver's shoes were weighted with a metal weight. A person in such a suit could breathe with the help of a bell with air lowered under water, from which breathing tubes were connected to the diver's helmet.

Parachute

Of course, at the time of da Vinci there were no flying machines yet, and the opportunity to take to the air for a person was only a dream. And the brilliant inventor conceived his first parachute in history, not as a means of salvation, but as a device that made it possible to move smoothly through the air, jumping from a height. Da Vinci's parachute is made in the shape of a pyramid and covered with thick fabric.

Hang glider

The human dream of flight has been cherished since ancient times. Leonardo da Vinci, like many before him, tried to bring it to life. The scientist was inspired to create the first flying machines by birds and bats. One of the flying machines was equipped with movable wings, which were driven by a person turning the pedals. The inventor also tried to create gliding devices: one of the inventions of the brilliant Leonardo was a prototype of a modern hang glider.

Helicopter

Since childhood, Leonardo loved to observe natural phenomena, animals and plants. The idea to make a propeller, like those that helicopters now lift into the sky, apparently came from the brilliant inventor while looking at how winged seeds smoothly flew from the trees to the ground. Da Vinci’s “helicopter” had to be lifted into the air by a large propeller, the blades of which were covered with canvas. It was assumed that four aeronauts, spinning the propeller, could create thrust and pressure on the blades, which would lift the “helicopter” up.

Automobile

This invention of the great Italian can be considered the world's first car. Of course, it looks more like a cart than modern cars. But Leonardo’s self-propelled cart did not need a driver and was an environmentally friendly vehicle, as it moved using a spring mechanism, like a wind-up toy. The idea is brilliantly simple: the spring was wound onto the drum using a lever by hand. While it was unwinding, the cart was moving forward.

Bike

Leonardo da Vinci invented a two-wheeled mobile mechanism back in the 15th century, long before the invention of the modern bicycle. In the scientist's manuscripts, sketches of a wooden car were found, very reminiscent of a modern two-wheeled vehicle. Only, unlike modern bicycles, the steering wheel of da Vinci’s invention could not turn and the car did not have a seat. But the transmission of motion from one wheel to another using a chain was first mentioned in the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci.

Spotlight

Da Vinci also conducted scientific experiments in the field of optics. The scientist invented several lighting devices, worked on the creation of a telescope and spectacle lenses. As you know, Leonardo served at the courts of wealthy rulers and patrons of the arts, whose favorite entertainment was the theater. The idea to create a spotlight arose from stage needs. The lighting device was a box with a burning candle inside. On one of the walls of the box there was a thick magnifying glass.

Robot

The genius of Leonardo da Vinci also came up with the idea of ​​a mechanical man, the first robot. According to some reports, this invention was even brought to life. The Man-Machine, built by Leonardo, allegedly served as a toy for the wealthy Milanese Duke Sforzo. The idea to create a mechanical likeness of a person came to Leonardo after a deep study of anatomy. History says that in one of the Italian monasteries Leonardo had his own secret room, where he and his students dissected corpses at night, studying the structure of the human body. The idea that muscles serve to move bones prompted Leonardo da Vinci to design the first robot in human history.

Machine gun

It turns out that the machine gun was invented long before the First World War. “A musket in the shape of an organ pipe” (as da Vinci called his invention) was designed to rain continuous fire on the enemy. To do this, it was planned to install 33 firearms on three racks on a special cart. The installation could rotate. The guns on the racks fired in turns - when some were firing, others were loading, and others were cooling. The height of the “machine gun” was regulated by a special lift on a screw mechanism.

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In the 15th century, the thought of flight haunted many engineers. But it was Leonardo who became the first to study the theory of flight.
Initially, da Vinci worked to create an aircraft based on the principle of flapping wing movements. He analyzed the flight characteristics of birds and bats and also studied the anatomy of their wings. He believed that a person could learn to fly if he designed and then operated a device that imitated the flapping flight of birds.
Some of his drawings depict a man lying face down, about to take off using mechanisms attached to the wings. Other drawings show more complex fastening systems. There are also drawings of a man with flapping wings, positioned vertically, and pressing the pedals of the apparatus with his hands and feet.
However, later da Vinci comes to the conclusion that a person simply does not have enough muscular strength in the torso and arms to rise into the air like a bird. As a result, he begins to explore the possibility of flight without flapping movements, delving into the study of wind speed and how to use air currents for flight.
His ideas, embodied in the form of drawings and sketches, largely anticipated the appearance of modern hang gliders, airplanes, helicopters and parachutes. The result of his tireless research was a collection containing 36 pages of drawings of bird flight and notes in which da Vinci argued that human flight was possible.
Leonardo's achievements in the field of aerodynamics can be viewed

Wing study (studio d'ala unita, wing study). Leonardo's many studies of wings. This wing pattern is based on the shape of a bat wing. This structure had to be made of wood and completely covered with canvas. This model may have been a prop in da Vinci's theatrical productions during his work at the royal court of Milan.

Wax hygrometer (igrometro a cera, wax hydrometer). This device measured the level of atmospheric humidity. It was a simple structure with scales. On one side was a water-absorbing material like cotton wool, on the other side a non-absorbent substance such as wax. When the air is dry, the plumb line remained vertical. When cotton wool absorbed moisture from the air, it became heavier than wax. The more the cotton wool outweighed the wax, the higher the degree of air humidity. Leonardo noted that this device helped “to find out the quality and density of air and predict rain.” Today this principle is used in weather boxes and other hygrometers based on absorbent material such as cat hair or human hair.

Anemoscope (anemoscopio, anemoscope). In the process of studying flight, Leonardo, among other works, created a drawing of an anemoscope, a device for determining the direction of the wind. The device looks exactly like a weather vane, often installed on the roofs of modern houses.

A device for measuring wind and water speed (studio per condotti conici, speed gauge for wind or water). Leonardo asked the question: “If the intensity of wind and water remains the same, can increasing their intensity five times lead to a fivefold increase in energy?” This experimental device consisted of cone-shaped tubes with a hole at the top through which wind and water were released.

Anemometer (anemometro, anemometer). This device was used to measure the force of wind. The vertical plate moved as an indicator of the direction of the wind, and by the degree of its deviation from the vertical position one could judge the intensity of the wind.

Flapping wing (studio d'ala batiente, flapping wing). This drawing was an experiment by Leonardo in which he tried to determine the lift of a flapping wing. The reed structure, covered with paper and consisting of a 12-meter wing and mesh, had to be attached to a wooden beam weighing as much as a person. If the lever was quickly pulled down, the wing would rise into the air along with the beam. If this idea worked, two wings would be able to lift the aircraft along with the pilot and keep them in the air.
In his notebook Leonardo wrote:
"... make sure that the jerk is as sharp as possible,
and if the desired result is not achieved,
Don't waste any more time on this."

Aircraft (macchina volante, flying machine). One of Leonardo's most famous drawings dedicated to human flight. A person, attached to the structure by straps, had to lie face down and pedal, raising and lowering the wings using ropes and levers. To change the direction of flight it was necessary to pull levers. The movement of the device imitated the flight of birds, since the wings of the mechanism bent and straightened during the flight.

Hang glider (deltaplano, hang-glider). Leonardo's early aircraft were based on the principle of imitating the flapping movements of bird wings. The mechanism of such devices used blocks and levers that moved the wings up and down. Later, Leonardo began to design devices that could fly using air currents and wind power. In such devices, a person could shift the center of gravity simply by changing the position of the upper part of his body. According to the drawing in this glider, the person was located at points "m", "d" and "a". The movement of the glider in flight was controlled using ropes. In 2002, a copy of this device was constructed in England based on Leonardo's drawings. And although the device was unstable in flight, it was nevertheless able to fly successfully after a tail was added to da Vinci’s design.

Air screw (vite aerea, aerial screw). In the Middle Ages, children played with a top, the blades of which rotated around an axis made of thread and lifted the top up. Apparently Leonardo borrowed this idea for his concept of a propeller rising into the air. Four people, standing on a central platform at the base of the apparatus, had to move around the axis and push the levers. As the linen-covered screws untwisted, thrust was generated, allowing the apparatus to rise into the air. Most likely, such a device would never be able to get off the ground and, nevertheless, it can rightfully be considered the prototype of a modern helicopter.

Vertical flying machine (ornitottero verticale, vertical flying machine). The picture shows a man standing in the very center of a huge apparatus. With the help of his arms, legs and even his head, he had to control the sliding mechanisms in order to rise into the air. Leonardo used every part of the human body in order to maximize the source of energy. The height of the device was 12 meters, the wingspan was 24 meters, and the structure was also equipped with a retractable ladder with a shock absorber 12 meters long. Leonardo believed that the design should consist of two pairs of wings flapping diagonally (crosswise), like the gait of a horse.

People have dreamed of rising into the air and soaring there like birds since ancient times. Observations of birds suggested that humans need wings to fly. The ancient Greek myth of Icarus and Daedalus tells how the first homemade aircraft was constructed - wings made of feathers held together with wax. Following the mythical heroes, many daredevils developed their own wing designs. But their dreams of rising into the sky did not come true; it ended in disaster.

The next step in the attempt to invent a working aircraft was the use of movable wings. They were driven by the power of their legs or arms, but they only clapped and were not capable of lifting the entire structure into the sky.

Leonardo da Vinci did not stand aside either. Leonardo's development of aircraft with movable wings driven by the power of human muscles is known. The first aircraft designed by the brilliant Italian scientist and inventor is considered a prototype of a helicopter. Leonardo drew a diagram of a device equipped with a huge propeller made of starch-impregnated linen material with a diameter of 5 meters.

According to the designer's plan, four men had to rotate special levers in a circle. Modern scientists say that in order to set this structure in motion, the muscle strength of four people was not enough. But if Leonardo da Vinci had used a powerful spring as a trigger, his aircraft could have made a short but real flight. Da Vinci did not stop developing designs for flights; he designed devices that could hover with help, and in the 1480s he drew a drawing of a device “for jumping from any height without harm to a person.” The device shown in the picture differs little from a modern parachute.

No matter how surprising it may sound, the first aircraft that took to the skies was devoid of wings. At the end of the eighteenth century, the Montgolfier brothers, the Frenchmen Jacques Etienne and Joseph Michel, invented the bulky hot air balloon. This aircraft, filled with warm air, could lift cargo or people. The compatriot of the inventors, Jean-François Pilatre de Rozier, took to the sky in a hot air balloon. And a month later he made his first free flight in a balloon in company with the Marquis d'Arland. This happened in 1783.

Moved by the will of the wind, people started thinking about controlled flights. In 1784, just a year after the first balloon flight, mathematician, inventor and military engineer Jacques Meunier presented a design for an airship (the word means “controllable” in French). He came up with an elongated, streamlined shape for airships, a method for attaching a gondola to a balloon, and a ballonet inside the shell to make up for gas leaks. And most importantly, Meunier’s aircraft was equipped with a propeller, which, when rotating, was supposed to push the structure forward.

But it was not possible to realize the brilliant idea of ​​Jacques Meunier in those days; a suitable propeller had not yet been invented.

In any case, it was thanks to the developments of scientists of past centuries and their homemade aircraft that the development and emergence of fast, spacious and reliable aircraft became possible.

Kalik Konstantin Alexandrovich

MBOU secondary school in the village of Krasny Klyuch

With. Krasny Klyuch, Nurimanovsky district, Republic of Bashkortostan

Lutskaya Larisa Alekseevna, teacher of MBOU secondary school with. Red Key

Historical research work on the topic “Do ornithopters have a future?”

1. Introduction.

2.Ornithopter by Leonardo da Vinci.

3. Further development of ornithopters.

4.Modern design of ornithopters.

5.Modern classification of ornithopters.

6.Constructing an ornithopter at home.

7. Conclusion.

8. Sources of information.

Introduction

Throughout history, man has made attempts to rise into the sky. The ancients, having before their eyes the example of birds, could not imagine any other way of flight. In the bird’s mesmerizing lightness of soaring, the ancient myth-makers saw hope for the fulfillment of their dream of rising into the sky. That is why the first aircraft were created in their likeness. The legend of flapping flight has been alive since the times of the ancient Greeks. We are familiar with the myth of Ancient Greece about Icarus, the son of Daedalus, told by Ovid. According to legend, Daedalus, who was captured by King Minos along with his son Icarus, searched for a long time for a way to escape and finally found it. “If it is impossible to escape either by land or by water, then I will run away along a road where Minos is powerless: I will fly by air,” says Daedalus. According to the story, he collects bird feathers for a long time in order to make wings for himself and his son. When the wings were ready, the fugitives took them into the sky. Icarus, having forgotten his father's warnings, flies too high - the wax holding the feathers together melts in the sun and the boy, falling into the sea, dies.

However, attempts to rise into the sky were not abandoned. “We again encounter groundless attempts to fly on devices that naively imitate birds, or new research... partially repeating the research of Leonardo...” This is what the remarkable Soviet scientist in the field of rocket and space technology M.K. wrote about this time. Tikhonravov in his book “The Flight of Birds and Machines with Flapping Wings.” Moreover, exactly the same attempts were repeated in the 30s of our century and, at least in projects, live indestructibly to this day.

The purpose of my work is to study the historically known projects to create ornithopters and the prospects for their development in the future.

1) Study information on the topic using popular scientific literature and Internet resources;

2) collect interesting facts about ornithopters;

3) try to assemble a model of an ornithopter yourself, using drawings and diagrams;

4) prepare material for class hours.

Ornithopter(from the Greek ornithos "bird" and pteron "wing") - a heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in flight by the reactions of the air with its planes, which are given a flapping motion. In the Russian language there are also synonyms for this word - macholet and bird-winged or macho-winged aircraft.

In the 11th century, the Benedictine monk Olivier of Malmesbeer flew from the top of the monastery wall using wings made, according to the description of the flight of Daedalus and Icarus, from feathers glued together. He managed to fly 120 steps, after which he fell and broke his legs. Failures and falls did not prevent man from rising into the sky again and again. The desire to conquer the sky turned out to be stronger than fear.

Ornithopter Leonardo da Vinci

Perhaps the most famous designer of ornithopters was Leonardo da Vinci. He was a “universal man” - he excelled in painting, sculpture, music, mathematics, architecture... Leonardo was convinced that “a man who overcomes air resistance with the help of large artificial wings can rise into the air.” Confident that he was right, he came up with a device that would allow a person to soar in the air like a bird, flapping large mechanical wings driven only by muscle power. To design an ornithopter, Leonardo da Vinci studied in detail the anatomy of a bird's wing. Based on his observations of birds, bats, and dragonflies, Leonardo created dozens of images of various flying structures that had interesting engineering solutions. Drawings of several ornithopter models have survived to this day. Leonardo da Vinci built his first flying machine in 1485-1487. In this ornithopter, the person had to be in a recumbent position. For flight, it was planned to use his strength in his arms and legs. The legs are threaded into stirrups so that one leg raises the wing, the other lowers it, and then vice versa. The wings of the structure bend and rotate using ropes and levers. This was supposed to create, in addition to the lifting force, the forward force necessary for horizontal flight.

Leonardo da Vinci's flying design

Leonardo not only provided a detailed description of the design, but also gave recommendations on testing the device. The following lines were found in his notes: “You will test this device over the lake and put on a long fur in the form of a belt so that you don’t drown if you fall. It is also necessary that the lowering of the wings be carried out with the strength of both legs at the same time, so that you can linger and balance while lowering one the wing is faster than the other, depending on the need, as you see, kites and other birds do this. And, moreover, lowering with two legs is always more powerful than with one... And raising the wings should be done by the force of a spring, or, if you want, by force. with your hand, or even better, by raising your leg, this is better, because then your hands are freer.”

Another version of the ornithopter proposed by Leonardo was an apparatus in which a person had to flap his wings, like a cyclist, rotating with his feet wheels connected by levers to the power structure of the wings. In the picture we see something similar to a bell suspended in front of the “pilot’s” face. Many researchers still cannot figure out what it could be. Perhaps this is a pendulum necessary to indicate position in space. Indeed, around 1485, the scientist made a sketch of such a device.

Leonardo da Vinci's most famous project is the ornithopter boat. He developed this model around 1487.

Ornithopter - boat

Probably in order to take off, a person had to sit or stand in a boat, moving levers connected to the wings. Another lever was needed to turn the horizontal steering wheel, which is shaped like a bird's tail.

At the end of 1480, Leonardo da Vinci created a large model of an aircraft with a pair of wings. A person standing in the bowl sets the wings in motion using a system of blocks. Interesting fact: this design had a landing gear that could be retracted using cables. Leonardo himself reasoned as follows: “I decided that standing on my feet is better than lying flat, because the device can never turn upside down...”. This design is considered to be one of Leonardo da Vinci's least successful ornithopter designs. The large dimensions left no chance for this device to take off.

An apparatus in which a person, like a cyclist, could rotate his legs and set his wings in motion.

However, Leonardo da Vinci did not give up trying to lift a man into the sky. Observation of birds gave him the idea that the main thrust in flight is created by the end parts of the wing. Finally, at the very end of the 15th century. Leonardo makes a drawing of a completely new design for an ornithopter - with a wing consisting of two articulated parts. The flapping had to be carried out by the outer parts, making up about half of the total wing area. This idea, which is the first step in the emergence of the concept of a fixed-wing aircraft - an airplane, found practical implementation in the last decade of the 19th century in the experiments of the famous German aviation pioneer O. Lilienthal. It is known that he tried to fly with a glider, the ends of the wing were driven by an engine attached to his body.

Ornithopter with wings consisting of two articulated parts

Leonardo's next step is connected with his research into the mechanism of soaring and gliding flight of birds. He came to the conclusion: “...When a bird is in the wind, it can stay on it without flapping its wings, for the same role that the wing performs in relation to the air when the air is still, is performed by the moving air in relation to the wings when the wings are stationary.”

Based on this principle, Leonardo comes to the conclusion: it is not a person who should push the air away with his wings, but the wind should hit the wings and carry them in the air, just as it moves a sailing ship. Then the pilot of the flying machine will only need to maintain balance using the wings. “It does not require much strength to support oneself and balance oneself on one’s wings and direct them into the path of the winds and control one’s course; small movements of the wings are enough to do this,” writes Leonardo da Vinci in 1505. Based on the concept he developed, the scientist decided to create a new type of aircraft. Most likely, it should have been fundamentally different from the ornithopters of previous years. According to the Italian researcher of Leonardo da Vinci's work, R. Giacomelli, it could have been a monoplane with a wingspan of approximately 18 m, designed for flight in rising air currents (in modern terminology, a soaring glider). The wings were movable, but compared to previous designs their mobility was very limited and would only serve for balancing. The manned “artificial bird” was supposed to launch from the top of Monte Cecheri (Swan Mountain) in the vicinity of Florence and, picked up by vertical currents, rise into the air. In anticipation of the event, in his “Treatise on the Flight of Birds” Leonardo da Vinci wrote: “The great bird will begin its first flight from the back of its gigantic swan, filling the universe with amazement, filling all scriptures with rumors about itself, - eternal glory to the nest where it was born.” However, Italy was not destined to become the birthplace of gliding. Loaded with numerous orders, Leonardo was never able to begin implementing his idea.

Further reasoning led Leonardo da Vinci to the idea that it was necessary to build an apparatus that would set itself in motion. A person must maintain complete freedom in order to control it. This idea was close to the idea of ​​​​building an airplane. There was only one thing missing - the idea of ​​a motor.

The works of Leonardo da Vinci remained unknown for a long time. But, analyzing the history of the development of views on aviation, we can draw an unambiguous conclusion: the idea of ​​​​an airplane did not originate on its own, but “grew” from projects of devices with flapping wings, the author of the first of which was the great Leonardo.

Further developments of ornithopters

The history of the development of aviation shows that the accumulation of scientific knowledge with the organization of practical experiments with flying models was intensively carried out all over the world in the 40-80s of the last century. In our work we will try to systematize individual facts of attempts to develop airspace in individual countries.

Ornithopters in Russia

A lot of interesting information about the attempts of a Russian man to take off can be gleaned by reading the article by Eduard Kudryavtsev “Creation of a flywheel: from the ugly duckling to the white swan.” Here are a few extracts:

1699 Sagittarius Vyazansky Serov made wings in Ryazhsk. The wings of pigeons are great, and as usual I wanted to fly, but I just rose 7 arshins, tumbled and fell on my back, but it didn’t hurt. (From a case in the voivodeship office in 1693).

1724 in the village of Pikhlets, Ryazan province: the clerk of the Peremyshlev Ostrov factory decided to fly in the air. He made wings from bull bladders, but did not fly; then he made it like ribbons... A strong wind lifted him higher than a man, and threw him onto the top of a tree and barely came down, scratched all over. (from Bogolenov’s notes).

In 1720, in the village of Klyucha, not far from Ryazhsk, a blacksmith called Black Thunder made wings from wire and wore them like sleeves; on the sharp ends were worn the softest feathers, like the down of hawks and fishermen, and, according to decency, also like a tail on the legs, and on the head like a hat with long soft feathers; He flew so little, neither high nor low, got tired and landed on the roof of the church, but the priest burned his wings, and almost cursed him (the blacksmith - E.K.). (From the case of Voivode Voeikov in 1730).

But no matter how interesting the facts are, all these are “things of bygone days, a legend of deep antiquity.” But what about our already bygone century? How far have inventors come from the model of a flywheel with a motor made of twisted rubber, the so-called “Peno bird” (the name of a French scientist), which, flapping its wings, flew ten meters until the factory lasted?

1871 Candidate at St. Petersburg University Mikhnevich came up with the design of a bird plane. The flapping wings were hingedly attached to the crossbar, and their ends were tightened by springs. The air pressure was supposed to lift the wing up, the spring was supposed to pull it back.

However, the idea was not approved.

Mikhnevich's bird flyer 1871

In 1895 in St. Petersburg, at an exhibition of the latest inventions, an unfinished ornithopter designed by A.N. was shown. Kostikova-Almazova. Its height was about 4 meters. The design had its own name, “20th Century Flying Crew,” which was given to it by its inventor. After the exhibition, Kostikov-Almazov addressed the population through the newspaper with a request to raise funds to complete his work: “I ask kind people to help me, in the name of human humanity, build the mentioned carriage in order to revive new technical creativity in the semi-worldly country of Russia. I need 300 rubles for finishing, 200 rubles for aluminum, 350 rubles for canvas and other materials. In addition, two motors are required: 50 horsepower and 30 horsepower. I ask if it would be possible to use it for the flight.” However, sponsors were never found.

Around the same years, engineer Tatarinov, using funds allocated by the government, developed his own model of an ornithopter. He chose wings with an umbrella surface. They had self-opening valves, just like in Degen’s design. The installation of an engine was provided. However, the work was never finished.

The first flywheel, built in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century, is better known as Smurov’s ornithopter. The device had a 3.5 hp motorcycle engine, from which there was a drive to the wings and wheels. According to the author's plan, the device was supposed to accelerate at the start using the traction force of its front wheels from the engine, and after switching the engine to the wings, take off. Parameters of the flywheel designed by Smurov: flapping frequency 60-80 per minute, wing area 13.5 sq.m., empty vehicle weight 80 kg, of which the engine is 26 kg. The ornithopter was built by V.M. Smurov in Siberia. It was brought to Moscow in 1913, where the inventor first tried to test it at the Moscow airfield in the presence of N.E. Zhukovsky. However, during testing, the ornithopter did not take off.

Smurov's Maholet 1901

"Letatlin" is a non-motorized individual aircraft, ornithopter. A conceptual work of art by Vladimir Tatlin, created by him and a team of assistants in 1929-1932. “Letatlin” was made in three almost identical copies, of which one has survived, with some parts lost. Tatlin began directly implementing the idea of ​​an ornithopter in 1929. The team of assistants included G. A. Sotnikov, G. S. Pavilionov, A. V. Shchepitsyn, A. E. Zelensky, Vkhutein students, surgeon M. A. Heinze, instructor pilot A. V. Losev.

A special workshop for the manufacture of an ornithopter was set up in the corner tower of the Novodevichy Convent. In May 1932, an exhibition was held in the Italian courtyard of the Museum of Fine Arts, at which Letatlin was presented. Tests of one of the devices did not take place due to damage during transportation. After the liquidation of the workshop in the Novodevichy Convent, the ornithopter was never tested. After his death in 1953, Tatlin “returned” to the Novodevichy Convent without “Letatlin” - by burying his ashes in the columbarium of the Novodevichy Cemetery.

Unable to store the devices in his workshop due to their large size, Tatlin transferred all three copies to various departments. “Letatlin No. 1” was, according to Tatlin, in the collections of the exhibition “Artists of the RSFSR for 15 years.” “Letatlin No. 2,” according to Tatlin, in 1933 was in the Central Council of the All-Union Society of Inventors. Both copies were irresponsibly lost by these departments.

The only surviving version of the Letatlin No. 3 apparatus (with some lost parts) in 1933, according to Tatlin, was in the Osoviakhim Museum and then, after several changes in the organization of aviation museums, it entered the Central State Museum of Aviation and Cosmonautics named after N.E. . Zhukovsky in the city of Monin (currently the Central Museum of the Air Force of the Russian Federation).

“Letatlin No. 3” was originally intended by the author not for flights, but for visual perception - as a self-sufficient work of art. It was for this reason that Tatlin left it without a “covering” to hide the structure.

Vladimir Tatlin's ornithopter - Letatlin, 1932

In 1935, B.I. Cheranovsky conducted experiments on flights on ornithopter gliders. The latter was named BICH-18. It was tested under a special program, which included testing it first as a glider and then as an ornithopter. The design was a biplane with articulated wings that were driven by the pilot. The flapping movement consisted of alternating approach and spread of the wings (a “double scissors” type design). August 10, 1937 pilot R.A. Pishchuev made his first flight. The tests revealed good qualities of the glider, and the second part of the tests showed that the flapping mode does not have a significant effect. The reason was the constant angle of the wings and their rigid aerodynamic profile. Further testing of the aircraft was stopped.

Ornithoptor glider B.I. Cheranovsky (BICH-18, 1935)

Academicians M.K. made a significant contribution to the study of flapping flight. Tikhonravov, G.I. Petrov. In 1981, a group of students and engineers led by Professor M.K. Tikhonravova performed and demonstrated a flapping flight. Since then, they have tested radio-controlled models of flywheels weighing 7-10 kg; projects of large manned winged aircraft for various purposes have been created. The design of a human-piloted flywheel capable of flying across the English Channel has been completed.

In addition to the above developments, it would also be possible to talk about the ornithopter designers: A. Yu. Manotsky (1955), D.I. Ilyin (1965), A. Shiukov and V. Andrev, V. A. Kiselev (1981), V. M. Toporov (1983-1992).

Birdcatcher by Dmitry Ilyin

Manotskov's design "Kashuk"

Engineer Vladimir Mikhailovich Toporov made a great contribution to the study of flapping flight and the creation of flywheels. The team under his leadership created several models of flywheels. In 1983, the Ilona model weighing 3.5 kg was developed. She took off from the ground, took off, but immediately fell. A year later, another rubber-powered model, the PM-4, was designed to fly at lower speeds than the Ilona. Low speeds made it possible to insure the model during flight with a simple device such as a fisherman's fishing rod. One day the model took off from the asphalt and flew for 17.5 seconds.

In 1987, they created a full-size flywheel "Istina" with a motor from the "Planet-Sport" motorcycle, suitable for a person.

Flywheels of Vladimir Mikhailovich Toporov

In 1987, the “Truth” was tested at the Tushino air show by test pilot Vladimir Makagonov (with pine wings and a tail wheel). The device still took off from the ground, despite its weight (170 kg). This was recorded by video cameras. The flywheel turned backwards and forwards at low speeds. In the winter of 1988-1989, the flywheel “ran” smoothly, did not touch the fishermen on the pond, and at the end of winter it twice lifted off the ground by about half a meter, then (April 16) fell into the water. Later, the models “Petrusha”, “Giordano”, “Invisible”, and “Azazel” were created.

Ornithopter developments abroad

Designers all over the world worked to create a model that simulated the flight of a bird. Already in 1647, the first model of an airplane with a motor took flight. Its developer was the Italian Titus Livio Burattini. The description of this device has survived to this day: it had four pairs of wings and a tail. The two middle pairs were motionless; movement according to the ornithopter principle was carried out due to springs installed on the front and rear pairs of wings. Eight years later, Robert Hooke managed to repeat the experiment and launch his model of an ornithopter into the air.

In France in 1781, Blanchard announced his invention in the Journal de Paris newspaper. A vessel one and a half meters long and three quarters wide, consisting of thin sticks, was supposed to be located on a cross-shaped stand. The wings, forming an umbrella with a diameter of 6 meters, were supposed to be mounted on two wooden posts. However, the inventor presented to the public a completely different design.

Gustav Trouvé provided the French Academy of Sciences with an original ornithopter (mechanical bird) in 1801. This aircraft resembled a fairy-tale dragon with spread wings. The wings were attached to the legs of a horseshoe-shaped curved tube. The successive increase and decrease in air pressure in this tube led to oscillatory movements of its legs, and together with its wings. Such movements were caused by successive explosions of cartridges placed in a self-acting 12-shot revolver drum. With these charges, the ornithopter could fly 75 meters. After the last explosion, it descended to the ground in a beautiful gliding flight. The model weighed 3.5 kilograms.

Model by Gustav Trouvé 1821

In the Austrian capital - Vienna, inventor Jacob Degen is developing his ornithopter. He designed a model with folding parachute-type wings that rose straight up and dropped down as well. The aircraft was called an orthopter and was a type of ornithopter. It was built from reeds, thin varnished paper, silk laces and wood. The wings had 1200 valves, which closed when the wings moved down and opened when moving up. The inventor conducted his experiments with the orthopter by hanging it from counterweights. Then he moved on to experiments with a balloon, which replaced the counterweights. This ensured that the lift force was distributed approximately equally between the balloon and the wings. On November 12, 1808, in the presence of the public, in calm weather, he managed to take off and then land successfully. However, the designer’s mistake was precisely in using a balloon, which, even with a slight wind, turned out to be a hindrance. At the same time, the flight did not take place; the orthopter did not even take off from the ground.

In France, ornithopters were invented by Vincent de Grof. His flywheel had wings with an area of ​​about 20 square meters, mounted in the upper part of a rectangular wooden frame. The pilot stood in the middle of this frame and moved the wings with his feet. Further improvements to this design did not give the desired result. Then the inventor decided to resort to the assistance of a hot air balloon in order to descend from it on his ornithopter. He believed that this would help determine the direction for further improvement of the aircraft. To help, he called on an English aeronaut named Simmons. Their flight took place on July 9, 1874. The balloon took off from London with a 125 kg ornithopter and its inventor suspended underneath. At a height of several meters, Simmons unhooked the ornithopter. During descent, the wings rose up under air pressure and broke. The inventor crashed and fell on the highway. In 1897, Engineer Arthur Stenzel in Altona (Germany) manufactured a large ornithopter. Its frame was steel covered with rubberized fabric. The wingspan was 9.32 meters. The weight of the ornithopter is 32 kilograms. Moreover, 17.5 kilograms of this weight came from a 3-horsepower engine running on compressed carbon dioxide. Despite the presence of an engine, the ornithopter could not fly independently. However, being suspended on a wire, with each flap of its wings it could independently move three meters.

Vincent de Grof's flywheel1874Model by Arthur Stenzel 1897

In 1928, in Florida, in San Augustine, the inventor White carried out a series of experiments with his ornithopter. The design he created in 1927 incorporated everything new that the best American industry in the world could provide. The frame of White's ornithopter was welded from seamless chrome-molybdenum tubing. The relatively short eight-foot (less than 2.5 meters) device had wings with a span of as much as nine meters, for some unknown reason not smooth, but with imitation of feathers for some reason. Why is this so? Apparently, the inventor wanted to save weight on everything, and in terms of weight he succeeded. The final weight of the device was only 53.5 kilograms, which is not bad even by modern standards. The last step remained - the car, completed in 1928, was preparing to “taste the air.” During the test flight the device crashed.

White Inventor Model

Modern design of ornithopters

Modern designers continue to work on creating ornithopters. Moreover, work is being carried out in two directions: the creation of models - drones and the creation of models capable of lifting a person into the sky.

Development of manned ornithopters

T. Harris, a research engineer at the Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio, and D. Deslauriers, a lecturer in aerospace engineering at Princeton University, created a two-meter radio-controlled model, but did not achieve any outstanding results. Then they tried to build a manned vehicle with a wingspan of 18 m, but the project was never realized. At the same time, D. Bennett, head of the Raspet Flight Research Laboratory at the University of Mississippi, worked on the problem of flapping flight. He tested radio-controlled ornithopters that rose on a cable behind a car. Bennett also came to the grim conclusion: "There must be a good reason why the Wright brothers didn't build a flywheel." Already in our time, professionals from the British Air Force, led by Roy Underwood, got down to business. Using the best materials and technologies, they recreated Leonardo's bird, but it never flew. American designer Paul McCready, famous for his muscle-powered aircraft that flew across the English Channel in 1979, built a model of a pterosaur with a flapping wing in 1986. The model was launched using a catapult, then it planned, the flapping wing was turned on, but in such a way that the slow movements of the wing with a small amplitude simply did not interfere with the model’s glide. It was only an external imitation of flapping flight. The model was eventually sold to the Smithsonian Museum.

Another project was being developed by an American-Canadian group led by University of Toronto professor James Delourier. In September 1991, they were able to demonstrate the flight of a radio-controlled model weighing 3.36 kg. In 2002, reports emerged that DeLourier had built a manned flywheel that was unable to take off. Its calculation according to published data showed that this device could not fly. However, the flight took place in 2006, but only with the help of an additional rocket engine. DeLourier himself does not consider this to be the implementation of flapping flight.

Modern manned ornithopters

(2006, Toronto, designer DeLourier)

On August 2, 2010, in Tottenham, Ontario, Canada, the Snowbird, designed by Todd Reichert, undergoes flight tests. Takeoff occurs while being towed by a car. The ornithopter stays in the air for 19.3 seconds. and covers 145 m at a speed of 25 km/h. It is characteristic that with a wingspan of 32 m, the weight of the aircraft is only 42 kg. In 2013, the ornithopter was placed at the Canadian Aviation and Space Museum.

Ornithopter drones

A team of inventors from the Delft University of Technology (Netherlands) have developed an autonomous aircraft that stays in the air thanks to the flapping movements of its wings. Called DelFly Explorer, the device is capable of independently navigating in the air, avoiding collisions with obstacles, and its battery reserve is enough for 9 minutes of movement. The device has a wingspan of 28 cm, and the total weight of the structure is only 20 grams.

Aircraft DelFly Explorer

A miniature flying robot from the American company AeroVironment, about the size of a real hummingbird, has learned to perform various aerobatic maneuvers and has shown the ability to hover and maneuver with high precision. It passed its first tests back in 2009. The model can accelerate to 18 km/h and weighs only 19 grams. Another drone is called the Park Hawk. This is a serial ornithopter of the FlappingFlight project. In flight, the aircraft repeats the movements of a living bird. It is capable of gaining altitude or descending by changing the intensity of its wing flapping. What distinguishes this model from other representatives of ornithopters is flight in the “instant gliding” mode. The device stops moving its wings and glides in the air, as birds do. To do this, just press a button on the remote control. Technical characteristics: weight - about 370 g, length - 69 cm, wingspan - 107 cm, total wing area - 2,420 square centimeters. The Park Hawk demonstrates high precision in flight.

Ornithopter Park HawkMiniature robot flywheel

The military is showing great interest in UAVs - ornithopters. The Army wants UAVs that don't just look like birds: it wants them to fly as quietly and maneuverably as real birds - and that means ornithopters.

Currently, drone ornithopters are widely used in various fields of human activity: geology, civil engineering, oil production, cartography... And among ordinary people there are many who like to take photographs by attaching a video camera to a controlled drone ornithopter.

Modern classification of ornithopters

The work will not be fully presented without indicating the species of ornithopters. Let's return to the definition of an ornithopter. So, an ornithopter is a heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in flight mainly by the reactions of the air with its planes, which are given a flapping motion. Among the varieties of ornithopters are:

An ornithopter glider is a device that rises into the air with outside help (for example, with towing, using a winch...);

Motorized ornithopter - a device equipped with a motor;

Orthopter - bird-winged aircraft;

A muscle-powered ornithopter (muscle plane) is a device driven by the muscular energy of the pilot.

Building an ornithopter at home

Studying popular scientific literature and Internet resources on this topic, I decided to construct my own model of an ornithopter. Ready-made drawings and diagrams are quite easy to find on the Internet. Moreover, on individual sites you can find a step-by-step description of the work. The process of creating the model took quite a long time and required perseverance, accuracy and patience.

My ornithopter model

I decided to test the model under various conditions. The results obtained are presented in the table below.

Based on the test results, we can conclude that my model flies for a short time. But this is also a great success for a beginner. I think that in the future I will try to create a model with the best characteristics.

Conclusion

Having studied popular scientific literature on this topic, I came to the following conclusions:

1. The idea of ​​rising into the air has always attracted humanity. Leonardo da Vinci should be considered the first inventor of the ornithopter. His followers went much further. Today, the most promising areas can be considered the creation of robotic ornithopters and the creation of manned ornithopters. The first direction has received wider development (new, ultra-strong and ultra-light materials, new instruments have appeared), the second is also developing, but successful models of manned ornithopters have not yet appeared. However, this direction should also be considered promising. I hope that the latest developments in unmanned ornithopter will become the basis for the creation of manned models.

2. Ornithopters have their advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include:

High maneuverability;

Ability to fly at low speeds;

They have no weight restrictions;

Economical;

Do not pollute the environment.

Among the disadvantages, the complexity of flight control should be highlighted.

Information sources

1. A. Relatives. Bird-winged machines, ornithopters and orthopters, their description, history and application in life. L., 1929, p.1-46
2. D. Voronin. Will the muscle plane soar?.. //Young technician. -1998 - No. 7. - p.38-42
3. I. Vinogradov. Man on Wings // Young Technician. -1958 - No. 5. - p.38-44
4. Helicopter-type muscle plane. URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscleflight
5. The first aircraft. URL: http://oko-planet.su/science/sciencediscussions/58574-pervye-letatelnye-apparaty.html
6. National and registration marks of aircraft. URL: http://aviadocs.net/icaodocs/Annexes/an07_cons_ru.pdf
7. Radio controlled models. Ornithopter Park Hawk. URL: http://rc-aviation.ru/forum/topic?id=3985
8. The Failed Invisible: George White's Ornithopter. URL: http://strangernn.livejournal.com/493225.html
9. Dragonfly Man. URL: http://zhurnalko.net/=nauka-i-tehnika/tehnika-molodezhi/1993-11--num11
10. Robot Nano Hummingbird URL: