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BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA(BiH), a state on the Balkan Peninsula. It borders on Croatia in the north and west, and Serbia and Montenegro in the east and southeast. Has access to the Adriatic Sea. The length of the coastline is 20 km. From 1878 it was part of Austria-Hungary, from 1918 - the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, from 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, from 1945 to April 1992 - the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

After the Turkish conquest, the Bosnian Bogomils were converted en masse to Islam (only a few Bosnians adopted the Christian faith, particularly the Catholic faith). Massive, unique conversions gave Bosnia a special status within the Ottoman Empire. The territory of Bosnia was preserved and expanded to include a number of Croatian territories. The Muslim elite of Bosnia received the status of hereditary nobility.

Bosnia's religious landscape became more complex after migrants called Vlachs, who considered themselves Orthodox Christians, joined the Ottoman Empire's border guards in northwestern Bosnia. Over time, they began to identify themselves with the Serbs. In addition, during Ottoman rule, a significant proportion of Herzegovina's Catholic population converted to Orthodoxy.

In 1839, after several centuries of struggle against feudal landowners, the government declared the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the law and abolished the feudal military system.

In 1848, the governor of Bosnia abolished the so-called korve - free labor of serfs for their landowner. Less wealthy landowners (duh) did not want to lose their corve, but their rebellion (1849-1851) was suppressed. The feudal landowners completely reconciled with the government when it issued a decree in 1859 declaring the feudal lords the full owners of the land and turning the peasants into sharecroppers. According to this decree, the peasants received freedom; but many of them, of their own accord or under pressure, renounced their rights to lease land. In 1875 there were several hundred beys (or large landowners), more than 6 thousand agas, 77 thousand peasant families (mainly Muslim) and 85 thousand families of sharecroppers, mostly Orthodox (Serbs) and Catholics (Croats).

Some landowners sought to retain the corve and the higher rents that were granted to them by the law of 1848. Due to a bad harvest in 1875, Herzegovina was struck by famine. The uprising that broke out that same year was both political and economic. For ideological reasons, it split into several movements: for unification with Serbia, for unification with Croatia and for autonomy. By decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was transferred to the rule of Austria-Hungary.

Austro-Hungarian rule.

During the period of Bosnia and Herzegovina's administration by the representative of Austria-Hungary, Benjamin Kállai von Nagy-Kallo (1883–1903), the region's economy developed rapidly. Railroads were laid, banks were founded, wood processing plants and tobacco factories were built. However, at the same time, dissatisfaction with the policies of Kalai, which established a semi-colonial regime based on officials from Austria-Hungary, also grew. In addition, Bosnia and Herzegovina became an arena of rivalry between Croats and Serbs. The Austro-Hungarian administration discouraged the province's ties with Croatia and encouraged regional national feelings.

The struggle for Bosnia and Herzegovina reached its climax in 1903 with the accession of Peter I Karageorgievich to the throne in Serbia. Amid growing Serbian nationalism, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, bringing Europe to the brink of war.

Even before the annexation, control of the Serbian nationalist movement in Bosnia and Herzegovina began to gradually shift from conservatives to radicals. The younger generation of Serbian nationalists sought unification with Serbia, without neglecting any methods, including terrorist ones. Terrorists who had contacts with Serbian military intelligence, after the failure of a number of assassination attempts on Austro-Hungarian officials, managed to kill Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914. This political assassination in Sarajevo prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia and triggered the First World War.

Yugoslav period.

At the end of the First World War, when Austria-Hungary collapsed, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (in 1929–1945 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the period between the two world wars, the dominant Muslim party, the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (YMO), fought for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but King Alexander I Karadjordjevic (1921–1934) after declaring a royal dictatorship in 1929 divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into several banovinas. In 1939, Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragisa Cvetkovic reached an agreement with Croatian opposition leader Vladko Macek (1879–1964) to create an autonomous Banovina Croatia. Subsequently, the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the majority of the population were Croats, were included in Croatia. This strategic mistake demoralized many Muslims and caused both Serbian and Croatian nationalists to consider the remainder of Bosnia as a legitimate part of Serbia.

During World War II, Germany and its allies divided Yugoslavia into several regions, incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the independent state of Croatia, an Axis satellite led by the Ustasha movement. This period was characterized by the persecution of Serbs by the Ustaše; there were also clashes between Muslims and Serbian Chetniks, who advocated the creation of a monarchy.

Post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina received the status of a republic in the Yugoslav federation created on the Soviet model by Josip Broz Tito. During the first post-war years until 1966, the governing bodies of the republic were dominated by Serbs, who continued the persecution of Croatian and Muslim nationalists and all religious communities. Subsequently, Tito came to rely more heavily on the communist leaders of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who took a hard line to thwart the ambitions of both Serbia and Croatia. At the same time, Tito supported the Bosnian Muslims as an established national group, creating increasingly favorable conditions for them as a price for loyalty to his regime. After Tito's death, Serbian claims to Bosnia began to grow, while Muslim separatism and Croat resistance grew stronger.

Civil War.

On November 18, 1990, after the first post-war elections in BiH on a multi-party basis (as part of the SFRY), the communists transferred power to a coalition government consisting of representatives of three parties: the Party of Democratic Action (SDA), which was backed by the bulk of Muslim Bosnians; Serbian Democratic Party (SDP) and Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). Thus, the anti-communist coalition received 202 of the 240 seats in both chambers of the BiH Assembly (SDA - 86, SDP - 72, HDZ - 44).

After the elections, a coalition government was formed from representatives of parties from all three Bosnian national communities. In the elections to the Presidium of BiH, F. Abdic and A. Izetbegovic won in the Muslim quota, N. Kolevich and B. Plavsic in the Serbian quota, and S. Klujic and F. Boras in the Croatian quota. The Chairman of the Presidium was the leader of Bosnian Muslims A. Izetbegovic (b. 1925), who even before the beginning of the 1990s advocated the creation of an Islamic state in Bosnia.

The Croatian J. Pelivan was elected Prime Minister of BiH, and the Serbian M. Krajisnik was elected Chairman of the Parliament. The tactical pre-election coalition collapsed already at the beginning of 1991, as Muslim and Croat deputies proposed to discuss the Declaration of Sovereignty of BiH in parliament, while Serbian deputies advocated maintaining it within Yugoslavia. Thus, the national Serbian Democratic Party under the leadership of Radovan Karadzic, even before the formal declaration of independence of the republics, declared its goal to unite all Serbs in one state. Already by the autumn of 1991, under the impression of military actions in Croatia, Muslim deputies called for the declaration of independence of BiH, and Croats and Serbs were called “national minorities” in a memorandum to parliament. Serbian deputies, as a sign of protest, left parliament on October 25 and created its analogue, the “Assembly of the Serbian People.” On January 9, 1992, they proclaimed the formation of the Serbian Republic of BiH (later renamed the Republika Srpska) and elected Radovan Karadzic (b. 1945) as its president. These decisions were taken taking into account the results of the plebiscite in the Serbian part of BiH.

In response to such actions, Croatian and Muslim deputies called for a national referendum, which took place from February 29 to March 1, 1992. Despite the boycott by the Serbs, 63.4% of voters took part in the referendum, with 62.68% of them voting in favor independence and sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina (40% of citizens with voting rights). On April 6, 1992, the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was recognized by the EU countries, although not all questions about the relationship between the three constitutional constituent parts (based on nationality) of a single state were resolved.

Since March 1992, military clashes began in BiH due to the blocking by Muslim paramilitary forces of units of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) leaving Bosnia. Already in April, these events provoked a civil war, which began with attacks on Sarajevo and other cities.

On May 12, 1992, the Bosnian Serb Assembly decided to create the Republika Srpska Army under the command of General Ratko Mladic (b. 1943). By this time, parts of the JNA had left Bosnia, although many of its soldiers took part in the fighting as part of the new army. In 1992–1993 they controlled approx. 70% of the country's territory, while Muslim armed groups are approx. 20%, and the rest - Croatian units. Ethnic cleansing occurred in all three parts of BiH, which became increasingly ethnically homogeneous.

On July 3, 1992, the Croatian population of Bosnia proclaimed the creation of the Croatian Commonwealth of Herzeg-Bosna (since 1993 - the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosna) led by President Krešimir Zubak. The aggravated internal situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina required the intervention of international forces - the UN and the OSCE.

In 1992–1993, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina sought support from the European Union, the United States and the United Nations. A small UN security force was stationed in the country and economic assistance was provided. At the end of 1992, peace negotiations began in Geneva, led by Lord D. Owen (Great Britain) and S. Vance (USA), representing the EU and the UN, respectively. The plan, formulated by EU and UN mediators, initially envisioned dividing the country into 10 ethnically homogeneous regions in a loose federation with a weak central executive and economic authority. The Bosnian Serbs under the leadership of Radovan Karadzic, who had captured a significant part of the territory, were supposed to return it to the Muslim Bosniaks. Only the Bosnians and Croats agreed with this plan, and the Serbs categorically rejected it. Croatian troops began the war with the Bosniaks in order to annex into Croatia areas that were not yet controlled by the Serbs. US President Bill Clinton initially expressed support for the idea of ​​a multinational Bosnian state, but soon made a statement about his intention to arm the Bosnians and use NATO military aircraft against the “Serbian aggressors.”

By the fall of 1993, Owen, together with the Norwegian diplomat T. Stoltenberg, who replaced Vance, proposed a new plan, according to which a unified BiH was built on confederal principles and included three national territories. In accordance with the Washington Accords signed on March 18, 1994, Duke-Bosna was transformed into the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the territories inhabited by Muslim Bosniaks and Croats. Since some areas were controlled by Serbian armed forces, they had to be liberated first, and for this purpose the peacekeeping force was increased to 35 thousand troops with the leading participation of NATO countries. On February 27, 1994, the NATO Air Force shot down 4 Serbian aircraft, and on April 10 and 11 bombed Serbian positions.

Initially, the clashes were of a positional nature, but in July Bosnian Serb troops captured the Muslim enclaves of Srebrenica and Zepa, threatening Gorazde.

In August–September 1995, NATO aircraft began bombing Bosnian Serb positions. This led to the acceleration of negotiations, which were mediated by the United States. For the first time during the war, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina agreed to recognize the autonomy of the Serb community (on 49% of the territory of BiH). In turn, Serbia and Croatia recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina. The negotiations laid the basis for an agreement between these three political forces on the issue of the final boundaries of the disputed territories. After the death of 37 people on August 20, 1995, as a result of a bombing at a market in Sarajevo, which was blamed on the Serbs, NATO aircraft began to carry out massive strikes on their combat positions, and the joint Croat-Muslim forces went on the offensive. The territories they controlled eventually exceeded 51% of all BiH.

To resolve the situation, on November 1, 1995, negotiations began at an air base near Dayton (Ohio, USA) to resolve the Bosnian conflict. They ended on November 21, 1995 after the initialing in Dayton by Serbian President S. Milosevic (who headed the joint delegation of the FRY and Bosnian Serbs), Croatian President F. Tudjman and Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina A. Izetbegovic of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A peacekeeping contingent was left on the territory of the state. The world community in BiH is represented by civilians - the High Representative for the Coordination of Civil Aspects of the Dayton Accords, the head of the OSCE mission, the special representative of the UN Secretary General, representatives of individual countries, as well as a 60,000-strong military contingent (its number is gradually decreasing), the core of which is NATO troops . The international military presence deterred previously warring parties from continuing hostilities. However, the governments of both state entities in Bosnia and Herzegovina did not seek cooperation. Despite international financial assistance, the country's economy was characterized by a complete collapse of industry, trade and other sectors of the economy, and a high level of unemployment. In addition, many refugees were unable or unwilling to return to their homes. The Serbian part of Sarajevo was handed over to Muslims, which approximately 150 thousand people left.

In general, the war in BiH claimed more than 200 thousand human lives, and more than 200 peacekeepers also died. From the eastern part of Bosnia, approx. 800 thousand Muslims, from the western and central parts - approx. 600 thousand Serbs, and from the central - approx. 300 thousand Croats.

Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Dayton Agreements came into force after they were signed on December 14, 1995 in Paris. Bosnia and Herzegovina remained intact, but was divided into two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) (Bosniaks and Croats) and the Republika Srpska (RS) (Serbs). 51% of the territory went to the FBiH, and 49% to the RS. Each entity had its own legislative bodies, government, police, administrative apparatus, and armed forces.

Since December 1995, in the context of a large-scale external military and political presence, Bosnia and Herzegovina has actually turned into a protectorate, although the number of military personnel has been reduced to 30 thousand people. Since January 1996, the international community began to exercise political control over Bosnia and Herzegovina through its High Representative. From January 1996 to June 1997, this post was held by K. Bildt, former Prime Minister of Sweden. In June 1997 he was replaced by K. Westendorp, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Spain.

The first government elections after the war took place on September 14, 1996. The election of representatives of government structures took place at seven levels, including the federal Presidium, as well as the parliaments of the Republika Srpska and the Federation of BiH. Several coalitions took part in the elections. One of them, the Joint List of Bosnia and Herzegovina (EU BiH), united the Social Democratic Party, the Croatian Peasant Party, the Bosniak Organization and the Republican Party. The Coalition for a United and Democratic United Bosnia and Herzegovina (KED) was formed by the Democratic Action Party (SDA), the Party for BiH, the Liberal Party and the Civic Democratic Party. The Croatian Democratic Community took part in the elections independently. The two main Serbian parties - the Serbian Democratic Party (SDP) and the Serbian Radical Party (SRP) RS - went to the elections with a single list. The Union for Peace and Progress (SMP), a coalition of Bosnian Serbs that united the Independent Social Democratic Party (NSDP), the Socialist Party of the RS (SP RS) and the Social Liberal Party (SLP), also announced participation in the elections. A small single list called “RS Opposition” was formed by several small opposition parties in the Republika Srpska. In the Federation of BiH, the KED coalition received 67% of the votes of the electorate, the Croatian Democratic Commonwealth and SDP/SRP - 18 each, and the EU BiH - 10%. In the Republika Srpska, the SDP/SRP collected 61% of the votes, the Opposition RS – 22, KED – 13 and the EU BiH – 2%. In general, in the two entities of BiH, the winners in the general parliamentary elections were: KED - 43% of those who took part in the vote, SDP/SRP - 15%, HDZ - 11%, EU BiH - 7%. The leaders of the winning parties in the elections were elected to the Presidium of BiH - Muslim A. Izetbegovic, Serb M. Krajisnik and Croat K. Zubak. A. Izetbegovic became the Chairman of the Presidium of BiH. B. Plavsic was elected President of the Republika Srpska.

After Dayton, the integrity of the country was ensured by the implementation of the agreement under NATO supervision. Parliamentary elections in BiH, as well as presidential elections in Republika Srpska, were held on September 12–13, 1998 under the patronage of the OSCE and in the presence of 3,000 observers. In these elections, along with the previous coalitions (for example, KED, SDP/SRP, etc.), new ones were formed and took part. Among them is the Sloga coalition, which united the NSDP, the Serbian People's Union (SNS) and the Socialist Party of the RS (SP RS). The SDA remained in the KED, and the CDU participated in the elections independently. In these elections in Republika Srpska Sloga, the coalition won 33% of the votes, SDP/SRP - 37%, SDP - 2%, KED -19%, HDZ - 1%. In the Federation of BiH, the votes of the electorate were distributed in the following order: KED – 49%, HDZ – 20%, SDP – 14%, SD – 4%. Thus, the Social Democratic parties collected 18% of the votes of the federal electorate.

As a result of the elections, the following coalitions and parties are represented in the federal parliament of BiH: KED - 17 parliamentary seats, HDZ BiH - 6, Social Democratic Party of BiH - 6, Sloga coalition - 4, Serbian Democratic Party - 4, Serbian Radical Party RS - 2, Democratic People's Union – 1, Independent Croatian Initiative – 1, Radical Party RS – 1.

In the House of Representatives of the Federation of BiH, deputy seats were distributed as follows: KED - 68 parliamentary seats, HDZ BiH - 28, Social Democratic Party of BiH - 25, Independent Croatian Initiative - 4, Democratic People's Union - 3, Democratic Party of Pensioners - 2, Bosnian Patriotic party -2, Croatian Party of the Right -2, Socialist Party of the Republika Srpska - 2, Bosnian Party of the Right - 1, Center Coalition - 1, Bosnian Party - 1, Croatian Peasant Party - 1.

In the parliament of the RS, the Serbian Democratic Party received 19 seats, the KED - 15, the Serbian National Union - 12, the Serbian Radical Party of the RS - 11, the Socialist Party of the RS - 10, the NSDP - 6, the Radical Party of the RS - 3, the Serbian Coalition of the RS - 2, Social -Democratic Party – 2, Coalition for King and Homeland – 1, HDZ BiH – 1, Independent Croatian Initiative – 1. Thus, positions of power both in the country as a whole and in its individual parts were occupied by nationalist-oriented politicians, representatives of such “mono-ethnic parties” ”, like SDA, CDU and SDP.

The Presidium of BiH included A. Izetbegovic from Muslims, A. Jelavic from Croats, and Z. Radisic from Serbs. At the end of 1998, the leader of the Socialist Party of the Republika Srpska, Zivko Radisic, became the Chairman of the Presidium of BiH; it is replaced in turn (every 8 months) by A. Izetbegovic, who advocates for a “united Muslim” Bosnia, as well as A. Jelavic, who advocates the annexation of the Croat-populated part of the country to Croatia. At the same time, the pro-European-minded B. Plavšić was replaced as president of the RS by the leader of the nationalist-minded Serbian Radical Party, Nikola Poplashen. On March 4, 1999, by decision of the High Representative of the international community in Bosnia, K. Westendorp, he was dismissed, and the presidential post remained vacant for a year and a half.

In the spring of 1999, BiH did not develop a unified state position in connection with the crisis in Kosovo. Its constituent parts supported the Stability Pact for South-Eastern Europe, signed on June 10, 1999 by the parties to the conflict and neighboring countries. The already undermined economy suffered significant losses from the blockade of Yugoslavia. At the same time, the Bosnians and, to a lesser extent, the Croats actively supported the positions of the Kosovars, and the Serbs - the FRY. At the same time, the leadership of BiH assumed that the crisis would serve as a reason for the accelerated admission of the country to NATO.

Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 21st century

In 2000–2001, BiH continued to be a deeply divided country, with a central government with little real power, an economy based on humanitarian aid, and unity enforced by the UN and NATO. However, integration trends in politics and positive changes in the economy were emerging and intensifying. Thus, with the help of the German Volkswagen and the Czech Skoda, the production of local passenger cars of outdated models was launched, which were exported to neighboring countries.

A little more than 50% of voters took part in the parliamentary elections on November 12, 2000. In general, the elections were held with serious violations and did not follow the OSCE scenario, which assumed the participation of the Bosnian Serbs. In the federal parliament, the SDP won 26.6% of all seats, the SDA - 24.9% and the CDU - 23.1%. The leader of the Social Democratic Party, B. Matic, became the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, supporting the course of integration of the country. In July 2001, after his resignation, Zlatko Lagumdzija became Prime Minister of BiH.

In the Federation of BiH, the Social Democratic Party of Z. Lagumdzhia won with a slight advantage (25.9% of mandates), the second place was taken by the SDA - 25.1%, the third - by the HDZ (19.5%), fourth - by the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina of the former head of the cabinet H. Silajdzic.

The Serbian Democratic Party won a convincing victory in the elections to the Parliamentary Assembly of BiH from the Republika Srpska, to the People's Assembly of the RS itself, as well as in the elections of the President and Vice-President of the RS. In the People's Assembly of the RS she holds 36.8% of deputy mandates. M. Sarovich was elected President of the RS, D. Chavic was elected Vice-President. M. Ivanich became Prime Minister. The party of independent Social Democrats of the former Prime Minister of the Republic of Sakha M. Dodik lost the elections.

In November of the same year, BiH restored diplomatic relations with the FRY, and on January 22, 2001, V. Kostunica visited the country, who was met by all three co-chairs of the Presidium of BiH. On March 5, an agreement on diplomatic relations between the FRY and the RS was signed in Banja Luka.

2001 was a decisive year in establishing contacts between official representatives of the Russian Federation, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. Thus, in December, BiH Prime Minister Z. Lagumdzija arrived in Moscow with the aim of establishing business ties between the two countries.

On March 22, 2001, the UN Security Council recognized the situation in BiH as satisfactory, although it condemned some manifestations of nationalism. At the same time, the prospect of the return of most of the 400 thousand refugees by mid-2001 remained uncertain. By the beginning of 2002, the peacekeeping contingent in BiH amounted to 17.5 thousand people.

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Authors: F. A. Aleksenko (General information, Population, Economy), V. P. Shram (Governmental system), M. A. Arshinova (Nature), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and minerals), K. V. Nikiforov (Historical sketch), A. N. Prokinova (Health), G. V. Pruttskov (Media), S. N. Meshcheryakov (Literature), N. M. Vagapova (Theatre), V. N. Gorelov (Cinema)Authors: F. A. Aleksenko (General information, Population, Economy), V. P. Shram (Governmental system), M. A. Arshinova (Nature), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and minerals); >>

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA(Bosna i Hercegovina, BiH).

General information

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state in the south of Eastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. In the north, northwest, west and southwest it borders with Croatia, in the east with Serbia, in the southeast with Montenegro (the total length of land borders is 1543 km). In the southeast it faces the coast of the Adriatic Sea (length approximately 20 km). Area 51.2 thousand km2. Population 3531.2 thousand people. (2013, census). The capital is Sarajevo. The official languages ​​are Bosnian (Bosanski), Serbian and Croatian (see. Serbo-Croatian language). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (KM).

Consists of two entities (from the Latin entitas - that which exists in itself, as a subject or object) - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (area 26.2 thousand km 2, or 51.2% of the country's territory; population 2219.2 thousand people, 2013, or 62.8% of its total number) and the Republika Srpska (area 24.6 thousand km 2, 48.0%; population 1228.4 thousand people, 34.8%). Brčko community (the only narrow corridor connecting two parts of Republika Srpska in the extreme northeast of the country; area 402 km 2, or 0.8% of the country’s territory; population 83.5 thousand people, or 2.4% of its total) has the status of a special district and is a condominium of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. In administrative-territorial terms, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 10 cantons (table 1) (including 79 communities, or municipalities), the Republika Srpska - into 6 regions (63 communities). Regions of Republika Srpska: Banja Luka (includes 2 subregions: Mrkonjić Grad and Gradiška; 15 communities in total), Bijeljina (includes the Zvornik subregion; 12 communities), Doboj (8 communities), Istochno Sarajevo (East Sarajevo; includes the Foča subregion; 15 communities), Prijedor (6 communities) and Trebinje (7 communities).

Table 1. Administrative division of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Canton	Area, thousand km 2	Population, thousand people (2013)	Administrative center
Bosnian-Podrinsky (3 communities)	0,5	23,7	Gorazde
Hercegbosanski (West Bosnian, Canton 10) (6 communities)	3,4	84,1	Livno
Herzegovina-Neretva (9 communities)	4,4	222,0	Mostar
West Herzegovinian (4 communities)	4,1	94,9	Široki Brijeg
Zenitsko-Dobojski (12 communities)	1,4	364,4	Zenica
Posavsky (3 communities)	4,9	43,5	Orasje
Sarajevo (9 communities)	0,3	413,6	Sarajevo
Central Bosnian (12 communities)	1,3	254,7	Herbalist
Tuzlansky (13 communities)	3,2	445,0	Tuzla
Unsko-Sansky (8 communities)	2,7	273,3	Bihac

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the UN (1992), CSCE (1992; since 1995 - OSCE), Council of Europe (2002), IMF (1992), IBRD (1993), Central European Free Trade Association (CEFTA; 2007); WTO observer. The Stabilization and Association Agreement with the European Union was signed on June 16, 2008, and entered into force on June 1, 2015.

Political system

Bosnia and Herzegovina– a federal state comprising the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. Constitution Bosnia and Herzegovina accepted 12/14/1995. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The function of the head of state is assigned to a collegial body - the Presidium Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of 3 members: one Bosnian and one Croat (elected directly from Bosnia and Herzegovina) and one Serb (elected directly from Republika Srpska). The term of office of the Presidium is 4 years (with the right of one re-election). Members of the Presidium elect a chairman from among themselves. The Presidium determines the main directions of the state's foreign policy; appoints ambassadors and other state representatives abroad; represents in international organizations; conducts negotiations, etc. Each member of the Presidium, by virtue of his position, has the authority to lead the country's armed forces.

The highest legislative body is the bicameral parliament (Parliamentary Assembly). The House of Representatives (lower house) consists of 42 deputies: 2/3 are elected by the population from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 1/3 - from the Republika Srpska according to the proportional system for a period of 4 years. The House of Peoples (upper house) consists of 15 deputies: 2/3 are elected by national parliaments from Bosnia and Herzegovina(including 5 deputies from Croats and 5 deputies from Bosniaks) and 1/3 from Republika Srpska (5 deputies from Serbs).

Executive power belongs to the Council of Ministers. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidium Bosnia and Herzegovina after approval by the House of Representatives.

IN Bosnia and Herzegovina there is a multi-party system; The main political parties are the Democratic Action Party, the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian Democratic Union / Christian Democratic Party.

Nature

Relief

Most of the territory Bosnia and Herzegovina located within Dinaric Highlands. From north-west to south-east, predominantly flat-topped, strongly dissected, often with steep slopes, mountain ranges and vast intermountain basins stretch parallel to each other. In the northern and southern parts, hills and low mountains predominate, in the central part there are mid-mountain and high-mountain massifs, reaching 2386 m in the southeast (the highest point Bosnia and Herzegovina- Mount Maglic). Karst landforms are widespread - bare limestone rocks, karras, caves, underground rivers. Vast fields were formed in the intermountain basins, including Livansko-Pole (405 km 2). In the southwest there is a short (about 20 km) section of the mountainous coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the north, along the Sava River valley, there is a plain with flat watersheds and wide river valleys (the southern part Central Danube Lowland).

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric fold system (the so-called Dinarides) of the Cenozoic Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which is characterized by a cover-zonal structure. The outer (western) zones are folded and disturbed by thrusts and covers of sedimentary strata of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene and represent fragments of the cover of the continental block of Adria (located to the west, in the Adriatic Sea), torn off at different stages of Alpine tectogenesis. The internal (eastern) zones are formed by Jurassic nappes ophiolites, Cretaceous limestones and Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch– fragments of the crust of the Neo-Tethys oceanic basin (see article Tethys ). There are intrusions of Cenozoic granitoids. Small depressions are filled with Neogene coal-bearing deposits. The country's territory is highly seismic. As a result of the catastrophic earthquake of 1969, the city of Banja Luka was largely destroyed.

The most important minerals: bauxite [deposits mainly of the karst type: near Vlasenica (very large), Milici – both Republika Srpska, Bijeljina region; in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - near Jajce, Central Bosnian canton; near Bosanska Krupa, Unsko-Sansky canton, etc.], iron ores (Lubija deposit - Republika Srpska, Prijedor region; as well as the ore districts of Varesh, Omarska), lead and zinc ores (in the Srebrenica area - Republika Srpska, Bijeljina region ), brown coal (Banovichi and Central Bosnian basins - in the Tuzlan, Zenica-Doboj and Central Bosnian cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bijeljina region of the Republic of Srpska), lignites (in the western, northern, northeastern and southern regions of the country).

Deposits of manganese (near the town of Bosanska Krupa; Buzhim, Chevlyanovichi) and mercury (Drazevic) ores have been discovered. There are deposits of rock salt (in the Tuzla area), barite (Kreshevo), asbestos (Bosansko-Petrovo-Selo), graphite, dolomite, bentonite, kaolin, gypsum and anhydrite, building stones (porphyry, basalts, granites, carbonate rocks, marble and etc.), sand and gravel, mineral and thermal waters.

Climate

In most of the country the climate is temperate continental. Summer is warm (average air temperatures in July are 19–21 °C on the plains, 12–18 °C in the mountains). Winter is moderately cool (average air temperatures in January are from 0 to –2 °C on the plains, from –4 to –7 °C in the mountains). Every year, 800–1000 mm of atmospheric precipitation falls evenly on the plains and 1500–1800 mm in the mountains. In the southwest and south of B. and G. the climate is subtropical Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers (average air temperatures in July 25 °C) and warm, humid winters (average air temperatures in January 5 °C). Up to 1600 mm of precipitation falls annually with a maximum in November – December.

Inland waters

IN Bosnia and Herzegovina– a dense and branched river network with a total length of over 2000 km. About 3/4 of the territory belongs to the Danube River basin. The main rivers are the Sava with the tributaries Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, and Drina flowing mainly from south to north. The largest of the rivers of the Adriatic Sea basin (1/4 of the territory Bosnia and Herzegovina) – Neretva. The largest lakes Bushko and Bilechko are of karst origin. Annually renewable water resources amount to 37.5 km 3, water availability is 9.8 thousand m 3 per person per year (2014). Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential; created approx. 30 reservoirs. About 1% of available water resources are used for economic purposes (2012); physical losses of water are significant due to the unfavorable state of water supply systems (up to 50% of total water intake).

Soils, flora and fauna

Fertile alluvial soils are common in the valleys of the Sava River and its tributaries, and brown soils are common in the mountains. Forests occupy 53% of the country's area (2015). On the plains of the north Bosnia and Herzegovina Indigenous broadleaf forests have been replaced by agricultural land. The modern forest cover is dominated by foothill and mountain broad-leaved forests, mainly beech forests (up to 40%). In the foothills and on the northern slopes of the mountains, up to a height of 500 m, oak and hornbeam forests grow with an admixture of maple, linden, and elm. In the central regions, beech forests are common, at an altitude of 800–900 m they are replaced by beech-fir forests with an admixture of pine and spruce. In the southeast, in the belt of mixed and coniferous forests, the endemic Serbian spruce is occasionally found. Above 1600–1700 m there are crooked mountain pine forests and subalpine meadows. On the southwestern slopes, on brown soils, maquis with holm oak, red juniper and other predominantly evergreen species of shrubs are common; on rocky slopes, phrygana is common. Above 300–400 m, areas of indigenous forests of downy and holm oaks, hornbeam, and French maple are combined with thickets of shiblyak in the rendzinas.

The fauna includes more than 85 species of mammals, over 320 species of birds, 38 species of reptiles and 20 species of amphibians, 119 species of freshwater fish (20% of the freshwater ichthyofauna of Europe). The forests are inhabited by red deer, roe deer, brown bear, wolf, wild boar, European lynx, wild cat, and pine marten. Reptiles are numerous in karst areas. In the swampy lower reaches of the Neretva River (Khutovo-Blato Nature Park) over 160 species of birds are found, the little cormorant, little egret, gray heron, night heron, etc. nest.

Condition and protection of the environment

The adverse environmental consequences of the military conflict of the 1990s remain: minefields occupy up to 3% of the country’s territory (2012), in some areas at the site of former ammunition storage, soil and water are subject to contamination, the problems of toxic waste disposal and infrastructure restoration have not been fully resolved. Ecological problems Bosnia and Herzegovina are also associated with the lack of a unified system of spatial planning, environmental monitoring and land monitoring. Landscapes in areas where minerals are extracted are severely disturbed; 900 hectares of land are lost annually during open-pit mining. The southern and central parts of the country are highly susceptible to erosion (including due to unsustainable exploitation of forests) and landslides. In the cities of Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla there are significant levels of pollution with sulfur and nitrogen dioxides and particulate matter. Due to an insufficiently developed water purification system, surface water pollution is an acute problem. Discharge of polluted wastewater 93.7 million m 3 (2013), most of the rivers are polluted with nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (Bosna, Drina, Neretva, etc.). 24 species of mammals, 97 species of birds and 11 species of reptiles are threatened with extinction.

IN Bosnia and Herzegovina 23 protected natural areas, occupying 1.96% of the country’s area (2014), including national parks Sutjeska, Kozara, Una; 2 reserves with strict conservation regime, 5 natural parks. Wetlands of international importance, protected under the Ramsar Convention, include 3 territories with a total area of ​​\u200b\u200b. 56.8 thousand hectares, including Livansko-Pole.

Population

From ser. 19th century Along with the revival of the activities of local traveling troupes, the process of forming a stationary theater of the European type began. A significant contribution to the development of theatrical culture was made by local amateur actors (A. Banovich and his troupe) and foreign diplomats who gave private theater evenings in Sarajevo. So, in 1865, an amateur troupe led by S. Petranovich played “Judith” by K. F. for a select audience. Hebbel. Around 1867, several performances were performed by amateur artists from a theater organized by the English consul. The props of this theater were bought by Sarajevo businessmen, the Despić brothers. Performances were given at their home from 1870–78. Troupes of “amateurs” from Serbia and Croatia toured (often illegally) in Sarajevo and other cities. , local traveling troupes performed, such as the Peles Group (1879). In 1881–94, a theater operated in Sarajevo under the leadership of the German entrepreneur G. Spira. Drama clubs existed under popular amateur musical groups in Bosnia. Attempts at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The creation in Sarajevo of a permanent (troupe of D. Ginich), traveling (troupe of M. Crnogorcevic; both 1898) or amateur (1912) theater playing in the Serbian language was suppressed by the authorities of Austria-Hungary.

In 1899, the grand opening of the Assembly House took place in Sarajevo (architect K. Parzhik), which combined the functions of a city club and a theater (this building, later adapted to the needs of the stage, now houses the National Theater). The invited troupe of the Croatian National Theater from Zagreb performed the play “Medea” by F. Grillparzer. The prologue to the performance was the performance of the ode “To the Muse of Enlightenment” by the Croatian poet S. S. Krančević, who lived in Sarajevo.

In August 1919, the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, on the proposal of the National Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, decided to create a National Theater (Narodno pozorište) in Sarajevo. The official opening took place in October 1921, with a welcoming speech given by the Serbian playwright B. Nusic, whose play “Protection” opened the first season. By tradition, the troupe consisted of actors of different nationalities: Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, Croats and Sephardic Jews. Theater workers from neighboring regions of Yugoslavia, as well as directors and actors from among Russian immigrants, took an active part in cultural life. The first professional director and artistic director of the Sarajevo stage was A. A. Vereshchagin (worked in Russia with V. E. Meyerhold, in the theater "False mirror" and the Ancient Theater of N. N. Evreinov). In the 1921/22 season, he staged the performances “The Imaginary Invalid” and “The Tricks of Scapin” by Moliere, “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol, “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, and “Oedipus Rex” by Sophocles. The repertoire of the National Theater also includes a staging of “Ward No. 6” by A. P. Chekhov, “At the Lower Depths” by M. Gorky and other Russian plays. They were played by Vereshchagin himself, his wife, actress A. Leskova, and subsequently famous in Yugoslavia Sarajevo actors D. Radenkovic, V. Starčić, V. Africh. In the mid-1920s. a new impetus for the development of theatrical life was given by the activity of the actor and director V. Beck, who was educated in Vienna; Among his most striking productions are “Hamlet” by W. Shakespeare (Beck played the title role) and a dramatization of “Anna Karenina” by L.N. Tolstoy, directed by the Russian director A.D. Sibiryakov with actress L.V. Mansvetova in the role of Anna. In 1924–27, the National Theater was led by Nušić, who sought to instill in the public, who sometimes preferred sentimental scenes from folk life and French salon plays, a taste for the European classical repertoire and modern national drama: the dramas of I. Voinovich, his own satirical comedies, the works of I. Palavestra and I. Samokovlii. Interest in the achievements of psychological theater was aroused by the tours of the Prague group of artists of the Moscow Art Theater in the 1920s. The Slovenian actor and director R. Pregarc made a great contribution to shaping the image of the National Theater. In 1930–36 he staged several plays by Shakespeare, “Cunning and Love” by F. Schiller, “The Marriage of Figaro” by P. Beaumarchais, “Just as You Want” by L. Pirandello, “In the Agony” and “The Lords of Glembai” by M. Krlezsa . With the support of immigrants from Russia - directors and teachers V. M. Grech, P. A. Pavlova, L. V. Mansvetova, A. D. Sibiryakov, actors of the younger generation fought for the renewal of the Sarajevo stage: J. Dacic, O. Babich, S. Ilic, S. Tanich, A. Cvetkovic, etc. The achievements of the 1939/40 season at the National Theater were the performances “Julius Caesar” by Shakespeare, “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky and “Pygmalion” by B. Shaw. The theater was also opened in Banja Luka (1930).

During World War II, the National Theater in Sarajevo was renamed the Croatian State Theater. The repertoire consisted mainly of plays by Croatian, Bosnian Muslim and German playwrights. The event was the production of Shakespeare's Hamlet by the outstanding Croatian director B. Gavella (1942). After 1945, the National Theater returned its historical name. From ser. 1960s This is where the Experimental Scene works.

In 1950, the Maly Theater [now Kamerni teatar 55] opened in Sarajevo. Theaters appeared in the cities of Mostar, Tuzla (both 1949), Zenica (1950). The first post-war years passed, as in all theaters of Yugoslavia, under the influence of Soviet drama and theory "socialist realism". The National Theater's performance based on the comedy "Partition" by S. Kulenovich (1948), which stood out from this series and, in the best traditions of satire, castigated the recent partisans, and now people's deputies who are not averse to profiting at the expense of the working people, was banned with a scandal. Followed from the 2nd half of the 1950s. The period of liberalization of the cultural life of the SFRY was marked by an update of the repertoire, attempts to master modern American drama, plays by French existentialists, absurdist drama, as well as works by new domestic authors of different nationalities. The modernization of theatrical life was facilitated by numerous tours to Sarajevo of theaters from neighboring republics of Yugoslavia and foreign countries (National People's Theater J. Vilar, France; Moscow Art Theater, Milan "Piccolo Teatro" and etc.). In the 1960s–1980s. The attention of spectators and critics was attracted by the performances of the National Theater “The House Washed by Tears” by R. Colakovic and “Funeral in Theresienburg” by M. Krlezha (director M. Belovich), “Rabies” by F. K. Kretz and “The Brothers Karamazov” by F. M. Dostoevsky (director S. Kupusovich), “The Wandering Troupe of Shopalovich” by L. Simovich (director J. Lesic), “Dead Souls” based on N.V. Gogol (director D. Mijac). Directors O. Milicevic, B. Hanauska, B. Gligorovich, B. Draskovic, V. Jablan worked on classics and modern texts by M. Jancic, S. Pasalic, C. Sijarić, A. Isakovic, S. Plakal, J. Karahasan, H. Pashovich and others. The new dramaturgy was distinguished by a combination of searches in the field of everyday and psychological drama, political satire, historical tragedy and parahistorical reconstruction of famous events (for example, the play “Principle G.” by D. Andzic, dedicated to a student whose shot became the reason for the beginning of First World War). The acting works of R. Demirdzic, N. Djurevska, J. Pejakovic, I. Bajrovic, D. Cavic, S. Pasalic, A. Cheyvan, M. Danira, A. Begovic, S. Mijatovic, A. Pavlovic, S. Sadikovic stood out and etc.

In the beginning. In the 1990s, with the collapse of Yugoslavia and the beginning of the military conflict, artists from several theaters in Sarajevo united into the troupe of the Sarajevo War Theater (SARTR - Sarajevski ratni teatar) led by playwright and actor S. Plakalo: during the 4 years of the blockade, more than 2000 performances took place. Since 1997 SARTR has become one of the theaters of the canton of Sarajevo.

The National Theater troupe staged the plays “Fortress” based on the novel by M. Selimovic, “Sarajevo Triangle” » Sh. Chegicha, “Hasanaginitsa” by A. Isakovich, “Ajax” by Sophocles, “Quartet” by H. Müller, etc. Since the building of the National Theater was too visible a target during shelling, the performances were performed mainly in the premises of the “Chamber Theater 55”. The play “Waiting for Godot” by S. Beckett, staged by the famous American writer and public figure S. Sontag as a sign of solidarity with the actors and public of the besieged city, caused a wide public response. The square in front of the National Theater now bears the name of S. Sontag.

In the repertoire of the drama troupe of the National Theater in the 2000s - 2010s. – A. Bašović’s play “Visions of the Age of Srebrenica”, dedicated to the tragedy of this Bosnian city, dramas by M. Krleža, B. Nušić, G. Stefanovski, plays by R. Colaković, S. Kulenović, performances based on works of local, as well as Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian satirists, classics of world literature: “The Balkan Spy in Sarajevo” by D. Kovacevic (2012, director S. Kupusovic), “Tartuffe” by Moliere (2013, director N. Hamzagic), “At the Edge of the Universe” by D. Komadin, A. Lugonich , D. Bevanda, N. Lindova and A. Pilava (2013, director M. Misiracha), “Wild Meat” by G. Stefanovsky (2015, director D. Mustafich), “Elizabeth Bam” by D. I. Kharms (2016, director A. Kurt), etc. The National Theater’s playbill also includes operas (“Eugene Onegin” by P. I. Tchaikovsky, 2012; “Ero from the Other World” by J. Gotovets, 2014; “The Maid and Mistress” by G. B. Pergolesi, 2015 ; “Don Juan” by W. A. ​​Mozart, 2016) and ballets (“Romeo and Juliet” by S. S. Prokofiev, 2011; “Mare Nostrum” to the combined music, 2012; “Pulcinella” by I. F. Stravinsky and “Giselle” » A. Adana, both 2014; “Don Quixote” by L. F. Minkus, 2016). Among the actors: E. Bavčić, E. Muftić, H. Borich, A. Kapidzic, S. Pepeljak, V. Seksan, M. Lepic, R. Lutovic, A. Omerovic, A. Seksan, V. Dekic, S. Vidak , E. Shiyamiya. The repertoire of Chamber Theater 55 is dominated by modern Western European drama. The renewed SARTR theater troupe, along with stationary ones, organizes traveling performances; in the repertoire: “1984” (2012) and “Animal Farm” (2015) by J. Orwell, “Another Letter from the Red Cross” by S. Krsmanovich and E. Selman (2014), “A Streetcar Named Desire” by T. Williams (2015 ), “The Little Mermaid” by H. K. Andersen and “State of Shock” by S. Shepard (both 2016), etc.

Sarajevo annually hosts the International Theater Festival MESS (founded in 1960 on the initiative of the playwright and theater figure J. Korenić), and since 2016 the festival “Days of Jurislav Korenić” has been held. The theater program is presented as part of the annual International Arts Festival "Sarajevo Winter" (founded in 1984/85). In the city of Banja Luka there is a National Theater (Narodno pozorishte Republika Srpske), City Theater "Jazavac" (Gradsko pozorishte Jazavac, 2006; named after the badger - the hero of the satirical comedy of the classic of Serbian Bosnian literature P. Kočić): the annual festival "Petar" is held Kochich." The Museum of Literature and Theater Arts of Bosne and Hercegovine has been operating in Sarajevo since 1961.

The theater magazine “Agon” has been published in Banja Luka since 2010. Since 2016, the publication of the theater magazine “Pozorište” has resumed in Sarajevo; "Theater"), until the 1990s. published in Tuzla. Leading theater experts and theater historians: J. Lesic, V. Ubavic, N. Novakovic, N. Glisic, D. Lukic, M. Radonich, T. Sarajlic-Slavnic.

Movie

The first film show in Sarajevo took place in 1897 (demonstration of films by brothers L. and O. Lumiere). The earliest surviving film footage of Bosnia and Sarajevo was made in 1912 under the title A Journey Through Bosnia by the London studio Charles Urban. ). The pioneer of B. and G. cinema was A. Valich, who managed the Apollo and Imperial cinemas in Sarajevo. In 1913–14 he made 5 films, including one about the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the demonstrations that followed. The first feature films were the short “On the Border” (directed by B. Kosanovich) and the full-length “Major Ghost” (directed by N. Popovich; both 1951). Famous writers often acted as screenwriters (B. Copic, M. Selimovic, I. Samokovliya, M. Kovac, A. Sidran). Most of the films were produced by the Bosna Film company ( Bosna Film; many were joint productions with other Yugoslav republics or foreign partners). Founded in the 1960s enterprise "Sutjeska-film" ("Sutjeska Film" ), specializing in the production of documentaries and short films, led to the flourishing of these genres. T.n. Sarajevo Documentary Film School gave cinema Bosnia and Herzegovina such directors as H. Krvavac, D. Tanovic, J. Ristić, M. Mutapčić, G. Šipovac, T. Janjic, P. Majchrovski, B. Cengic, B. Filipović. Along with them, a significant role in the formation of original cinemaBosnia and Herzegovina, which received worldwide recognition, was played by I. Matic, N. Stojanovic and M. Idrizovic, who came from amateur cinema, as well as theater figures B. Draskovic and J. Lesic. In 1981, the Academy of Performing Arts was founded in Sarajevo with the only acting department at that time (the directing department opened in 1989, and dramaturgy in 1994). Among the most significant films that were filmed entirely or partially in Bosnia and Herzegovina B . Cengic, “The Smell of Quince” by M. Idrizovic (1982), “Woman and Landscape” by I. Matic (1975, released in 1989), “Here’s a Little Bit of Soul” by A. Kenovich (1987), “Donkey Years” N. Dizdarevich (1994). E. also started working at the Bosna Film studio. Kusturica (“Do You Remember Dolly Bell?”, 1981; “Dad on a Business Trip,” 1985; “The Hanging House,” 1988), but with the outbreak of hostilities for political reasons, he left Sarajevo and continued working in Belgrade. The military conflict had a negative impact on the development of cinema. However, since 1995, the International Film Festival has been taking place in Sarajevo, and the post-war boom has made cinema Bosnia and Herzegovina one of the most noticeable in South-Eastern Europe at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. The first post-war feature film was “A Perfect Circle” by A. Kenovich (1997), and the greatest success was the film “No Man’s Land” by D. Tanovic (2001, together with Italy, Slovenia, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Oscar Award, International Film Festival in Cannes and many others). Among the films of the 2000–2010s: “10 Minutes” (2002, recognized as the best European short film of the year), “To the West” (2005) and “Belvedere” (2010) by A. Imamovich, “Summer in the Golden Valley” ( 2003) and “It’s hard to be good” (2007) by S. Vuletic, “Remake” by D. Mustafic (2003), “Bickford Cord” (2003) and “Days and Hours” (2004) by P. Zhalica, “Yasmina” by N. Begovich (2010), “Snow” (2008) and “Children of Sarajevo” (2012) by A. Begic, “Halima’s Path” by A. A. Ostojic (2012), “With Mom” by F. Lonkarevich, “For Those Who Can’t lie” J. Zbanich (both 2013).

A Montenegrin friend once asked me: Bosnia hasn't issued you a passport yet?
- No,- I answered in surprise. - In honor of what?
- You go there so often and always promote this country on Facebook that if I were them, I would give you citizenship.

I explain my love for the neighboring country in three words - beautiful, tasty, cheap. And tourists feel this, go there with great curiosity and return with wonderful impressions. It seems to be Europe, but with a touch of the Middle Ages and Eastern flavor.

The short film “Bosnia timeless” (bezvremenska Bosna) will be released in the summer of 2016; it will give you the opportunity to virtually admire 50 of the country’s most stunning locations. So far, only a 2-minute video about the Gradina fortress, located in the city of Sreberenik, has been posted on the Internet.

I half-jokingly call Bosnia and Herzegovina a quasi-state. Because without 100 grams it is impossible to understand the geographical and political division... The Republika Srpska and the Federation of BiH, into which it is divided, even have two different railway websites! When I found out, I was perplexed. And another funny thing - the country is ruled by 3 presidents! The war in Bosnia formally subsided 20 years ago, but the Bosnians have not yet learned to live calmly, well-fed and in a friendly manner. Churchill seemed to say the phrase “The Balkans produce so much history that they themselves are unable to digest it.” And this is true, but Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the most in 92-95.

I also saw the exact phrase from the modern traveler Sergei Novikov: Over the course of 3 years of war, the Yugoslavs managed to dig such a gap between themselves that neither the Ottoman nor the Austro-Hungarian empires combined could create".

With ethnic strife, economic backwardness, corruption, poverty, visible traces of war and other problems, the leadership of Bosnia and Herzegovina recently submitted an application to join the EU. According to the official announcement, EU membership will be considered in Brussels on February 15, 2016... But as the famous saying goes: Promising does not mean getting married! But if this mix of states in one state still becomes part of the Union of European States in the distant future, then without 200 grams it will be impossible to understand its political and economic structure :))) So that once and for all your questions about this country disappear, I recommend reading interesting articles

Personally, I haven’t seen much in Bosnia yet, although I live next door, the plan with awesome places is already painted on two sheets of paper. I am already tired of standard routes, and my friends do not agree to a longer trip, even a week. All that remains is to wait for the arrival of bloggers and travelers who are also interested in Bosnia.

Bosnia and Herzegovina ranks 10th in the world for coffee consumption. Bosnian coffee is part of the Bosnian identity. This is a symbol of the state :)) Once in a Mostar cafe I asked for Turkish coffee, meaning brewed in a cezve and with Turkish delight, and the waiter corrected me - This is Bosanska Cafe.

Pocitelj, view from the other side of the fortress

What has this paving stone not seen!

But these walls, with the imprints of the last war, will tell even more

What tourists don’t realize is the natural beauty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. What kind of rivers, mountains, parks there are, even a piece of the sea :)) In the fall, after heavy rains, I arrived and saw the light - there was many times more water than in the spring. You can’t see the height in the photo, but it’s incredibly beautiful there, very noisy, and your face is showered with droplets from the waterfall every second.

The road itself from Montenegro to Trebinje is incredibly beautiful. A more picturesque road goes through Risan than through Herceg Novi, although it is longer.

Trebinje with its cafe under the plane trees is nostalgia for Yugoslavia

And the Tvrdosh Monastery lurked nearby, looking like an alien guest

Just below the church there is a wine production facility; I often go there to look at the tall metal barrels and drink the fresh wine that is bottled here. Organized tourists are shown another place - a basement with wooden barrels and given wine for money :))

Located in southeastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. It borders on Croatia in the north and west, Montenegro in the southeast, and Serbia in the east.

The country's name comes from the name of the Bosna River and the Hungarian he-rceg- "voivode". Capital. Sarajevo.

Official name: Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Capital: Sarajevo

The area of ​​the land: 51.1 thousand sq. km

Total Population: 4.5 million people

Administrative division: Consists of two historical regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Form of government: Republic.

Head of State: Chairman of the Presidium, consisting of three members (Bosnian, Serb, Croat), who alternate in office every 8 months.

Population composition: 31% Serbs, 49% Bosniaks (Muslim Bosniaks), 14% Croats, 0.6% others

Official language: Bosnian (Bosanski), Serbian, Croatian

Religion: 40% are Muslims, 31% are Orthodox, 15% are Catholics, 14% are adherents of other faiths - 14%.

Internet domain: .ba

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +387

Country barcode: 387

Climate

Temperate continental. The general picture of the natural and climatic conditions of the country is heterogeneous - in fact, here you can observe a wide variety of microclimatic zones associated with the peculiarities of the local topography - even neighboring sections of the same valley can differ noticeably from each other in weather due to different topography. Characteristic features of the local climate also include rapid changes in local weather during the day, which is associated with different heating of mountain slopes under the influence of sunlight, changing its azimuth and angle of incidence during the day.

The average summer temperature in the valleys is from +16 to +27 C, and up to +10-21 in the mountainous areas (in the capital the average July temperature is +21 C). In winter from 0 C to -7 C, respectively (in the capital in January it is about -1 C, but the temperature can drop to -16 C). Precipitation ranges from 400 (eastern mountain slopes) to 1500 (western) mm per year, mainly in summer and early winter.

Geography

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mountainous country located in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. It borders with Croatia in the north, south and west (total length of the border is 932 km), with Serbia in the east and Montenegro in the south. The long and narrow “Neum corridor” stretches between the borders of Croatia and Montenegro to the Adriatic coast (the coastline is only 20 km wide).

Bosnia occupies the northern part of the federation, along the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries. Herzegovina is located further south, in the Neretva River basin. The Serbian Republic occupies the north-eastern part of the country adjacent to Serbia. The total area of ​​the country is 51.1 thousand square meters. km.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

Forests occupy 41% of the country's territory. There are almost no native broadleaf forests left on the northern plains, which are now occupied by agricultural land. In the north in the foothills and on mountain slopes up to a height of approx. 500 m grow oak and hornbeam forests with an admixture of maple and linden. Beech trees are common in the central regions, and above 800-900 m above sea level. – beech-fir forests with an admixture of maple, pine and spruce. In the upper mountain belt, above 1600–1700 m above sea level, subalpine meadows are common. In the subtropics in the southwest of the country, evergreen forests (maquis) and deciduous shrubs are common up to an altitude of 300–400 m; higher in the mountains there are forests of southern species of oak, hornbeam and maple.

Animal world

In the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bears, wolves, wild boars, lynxes, forest cats, otters, martens, and many hares. Lizards, snakes, and turtles are common in karst areas. The avifauna is rich. Large birds include eagles, falcons, and wood grouse. The mouth of the Neretva River is characterized by swampy landscapes. Great and little egrets, various waterfowl, and birds of prey include golden eagles, great spotted eagle, and white-tailed eagle are found there.

Banks and currency

Convertible mark (KM or VAM), equal to 100 pfennigs (fenigs). The convertible mark is equal to the euro in the proportion 1KM = 0.51129 euros. In circulation there are banknotes in denominations of 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1 and 0.5 marks (the latter is gradually withdrawn from circulation since March 31, 2003), as well as coins in denominations of 2 and 1 mark, 10, 20 and 50 pfennigs. Both federal units of the country issue their own versions of banknotes; on Bosnian stamps all inscriptions are made in Latin, on Serbian ones - in Cyrillic. But the colors and denominations of the banknotes are the same, and banknotes of all issues are in free circulation throughout the country.

The Croatian kuna and the Serbian dinar are used in areas adjacent to their respective borders. US dollars and euros are virtually ubiquitous, although in many Serbian areas dollars are practically useless, usually only large hotels and banks accept them.

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 19.00.

It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels and exchange offices, since when exchanging on the street the percentage of fraud is very high. All receipts received when exchanging money should be kept, as they will be required for the return exchange when leaving the country.

Using credit cards is difficult. You can withdraw money from them only in the offices of banks in the capital, as well as in some hotels, restaurants, post offices and shops in the capital and Medugorje. ATM ATMs have begun to appear more and more often, but for the most part they only serve Maestro and Visa cards.

Travel checks can only be cashed at bank offices, but the procedure for verifying their authenticity is extremely lengthy.

Useful information for tourists

It is customary to leave tips in taxis and expensive restaurants. It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels, exchange offices, since there is a high possibility of fraud.

The standard of living in the country is extremely low, so it is not recommended to carry large amounts of cash with you to avoid robbery.