What does Carthage mean? History of the city-state

CARTHAGE
an ancient city (near modern Tunisia) and a state that existed in the 7th-2nd centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (which means "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by people from Phoenician Tire (traditional founding date 814 BC, actually founded somewhat later, perhaps c. 750 BC). The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks - Carchedon. According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants were renowned for their business acumen. According to the legend of the city's founding, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the hide into narrow strips. That is why the citadel erected at this place was called Birsa (which means “skin”). Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded somewhat to the north (the traditional date is c. 1100 BC). Probably around the same time, Hadrumet and Leptis, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippo on the north coast and Lyx on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco were founded. Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete plied the Mediterranean Sea. The political and military failures of these powers starting around 1200 BC. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean Sea and a favorable opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. From 1100 to 800 BC The Phoenicians virtually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored the lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

CITY AND POWER
Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the continent, it had an advantageous geographical position, which was conducive to trade, and also allowed it to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further to the west. Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city, and intensive construction took place in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC. Based on the scanty evidence of ancient authors and their often unclear topographical indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls with a length of approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was very strongly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter, called Megara, had many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.
System of government. In terms of its government structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was Queen Dido, we know almost nothing about royal power here. Ancient authors, who mostly admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declarations of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates - suffets (sufetes called them by the Romans, this is the same position as "shofetim", i.e. judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a completely respectable occupation, and wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as Hanno the Great in the 3rd century. BC.
Regions and cities. The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians themselves - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the city’s rule. When ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about Carthage's relations with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was more than 300 km east of Eia (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. Colonies and trading posts were for the most part located approximately one day's sailing distance from each other. Usually they were located on islands near the coast, on capes, at the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country from where it was easy to reach the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final coastal point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and gold sand. This trade probably began early in Carthage's history. The power included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought against the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilybaeum and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it so happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were prohibited from entering the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks gained a foothold on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great successes were achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating its power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set any goals other than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.
CARTAGE CIVILIZATION
Agriculture. The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. The most important grain crops were wheat and barley. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. Average quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine; even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the consumption of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, the gourmets of imperial Rome highly valued poultry from Africa. Unlike Republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of Carthage's African possessions were divided among wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates farming was carried out on a scientific basis. A certain Mago, who probably lived in the 3rd century. BC, wrote a guide to farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wanting to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek agricultural manuals, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and touched on all aspects of agricultural production. Probably local Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers, worked as tenants or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the hillier areas were devoted to orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.
Craft. Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the vibrant purple dye commonly known as Tyrian purple, dates back to the later period of Roman rule in North Africa, but may be considered to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Purple, a sea snail containing this dye, was best collected in the fall and winter - seasons not suitable for seafaring. Permanent settlements were founded in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the Western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops have been noted. It is often very difficult to distinguish among finds Carthaginian products from objects imported from Phenicia or Greece. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple items, and the Carthaginians do not seem to have been too keen on making anything other than copies. Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the craftsmen of Ancient Phenicia who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metal workers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the dead. The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns filled with products intended for firing were discovered. Each Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found throughout the areas that were part of Carthage's sphere - Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is also discovered from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern. Marseille) and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade. Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was evident in the imitation of Greek pottery and sculpture and the presence of large quantities of Greek products from this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.
Trade policy. The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policies were largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In a treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies. The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities maintained the complex structures of Carthage's trading harbor in good repair, as well as its military harbor, which was apparently open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered it. It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.
Goods and trade routes. Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly scant, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical of such evidence is Herodotus' story about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed at a certain place and laid out goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods these were is not mentioned in the story. Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they had a monopoly, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to some evidence, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves. It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, Southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships. Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, huge quantities of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for games. Figs and honey are also mentioned. It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean to obtain tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, native to Spain and North Africa. An important trade item, due to its high price, was the purple dye from scarlet. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and leather and found markets to sell them. As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs, popular in ancient times, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. The caravans also brought ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold sand from the Gold Coast or Guinea. The Carthaginians imported some of the best goods for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage came from Greece or from Campania in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles of Rhodian amphorae found during excavations in Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, no high-quality Attic ceramics are found here.
Language, art and religion. We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play of Plautus the Punic, where one of the characters, Hanno, pronounces a monologue, apparently in the original Punic dialect, which is immediately followed by a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, there are many replicas of the same Gannon scattered throughout the play, also translated into Latin. Unfortunately, the scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these passages, the similarity of the Punic language to the Hebrew language is very helpful. The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be classified as art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no evidence of them producing any other works than purely practical ones, such as Mago's manual on agriculture, and one or two smaller compilations of texts in Greek. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of anything that could be called “fine literature.” Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - a Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in the Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifices, which were especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is belief in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES
The most ancient rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.
Alliance with the Etruscans. The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, traders and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. Their main area of ​​settlement was immediately north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having concluded an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica. The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans expelled them from Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, enlisting the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a bridgehead in Sardinia.
The fight for Sicily. Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had the opportunity to measure its strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Pheron in Acragantum, clearly foreshadowed to the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted together with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Himera in Sicily occurred in 480 BC. in the same day. Having confirmed the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon put up an irresistible force. Much time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an offensive in Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled the Athenian invasion (415-413 BC), completely defeating them, it sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, which was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and for forty years fought against the Carthaginians with varying success. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing complete control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity committed by Dionysius were partly compensated by the assistance he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their fight against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who succeeded his father. However, this again did not achieve its goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of fighting, which made it impossible to talk about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded. There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other nations, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles. In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. A new tyrant, Agathocles, ruled in Syracuse. The Carthaginians had already besieged him in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles and his army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From this moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. The usual war continued with varying success. In 278 BC The Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the southern Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself (“Pyrrhic victory”), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.
Wars with Rome. The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians. The war lasted 24 years (264-241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and initially achieved some successes, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a number of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising of Carthaginian mercenaries dissatisfied with the delay of money broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC. In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca went to Spain and began the conquest of the interior. To the Roman embassy, ​​who came with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay the indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The riches of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, conflict began again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, winning several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, transferred the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC). Carthage lost Spain and finally lost its position as a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the words “Delenda est Carthago” - “Carthage must be destroyed.” In 149 BC Rome's exorbitant demands forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state into a third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, Punic was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
ROMAN CARTHAGE
Julius Caesar, who had a practical bent, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it pointless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after its destruction, the city began a new life. From the very beginning it prospered as the administrative center and port of an area with rich agricultural production. This period of Carthage's history lasted almost 750 years. Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the minds of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which made up a significant part of the province, was also located here. Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage as a youth, and later achieved such fame there for his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronto, the mentor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus. The ancient Punic religion survived in Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno the Celestial, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). However, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained prominence in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. The Carthaginian bishop was Cyprian, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine, in his Confessions, gives us several vivid sketches of the lives of students who attended the rhetoric school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century. However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance. Do we hear stories about the public executions of Christians, do we read about Tertullian’s furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent secular attire, or do we meet references to some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, above the level of a large provincial city he never rises again. For some time here was the capital of the Vandals (429-533 AD), who, like pirates once upon a time, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. This area was then conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until Carthage fell to the Arabs in 697.

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Ancient Carthage was founded in 814 BC. colonists from the Phoenician city of Fez. According to ancient legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who was forced to flee Fez after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tyre, killed her husband Sycheus in order to take possession of his wealth.

Its name in Phoenician “Kart-Hadasht” means “New City”, perhaps in contrast to the more ancient colony of Utica.

According to another legend about the founding of the city, Elissa was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox's hide could cover. She acted quite cunningly - taking possession of a large plot of land, cutting the skin into narrow belts. Therefore, the citadel erected at this place began to be called Birsa (which means “skin”).

Carthage was originally a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, except for the significant fact that it was not part of the Tyrian state, although it retained spiritual ties with the metropolis.

The city's economy was based primarily on intermediary trade. The craft was little developed and in its basic technical and aesthetic characteristics did not differ from the East. There was no agriculture. The Carthaginians did not have possessions beyond the narrow space of the city itself, and they had to pay tribute to the local population for the land on which the city stood. The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy, and the head of the state was the founder of the city. With her death, probably the only member of the royal family who was in Carthage disappeared. As a result, a republic was established in Carthage, and power passed to the ten “princeps” who had previously surrounded the queen.

Territorial expansion of Carthage

Terracotta mask. III-II centuries BC. Carthage.

In the first half of the 7th century. BC. A new stage in the history of Carthage begins. It is possible that many new immigrants from the metropolis moved there due to fear of the Assyrian invasion, and this led to the expansion of the city, attested by archeology. This strengthened it and allowed it to move to more active trade - in particular, Carthage replaced Phenicia proper in trade with Etruria. All this leads to significant changes in Carthage, the external expression of which is a change in the forms of ceramics, the revival of old Canaanite traditions already abandoned in the East, the emergence of new, original forms of artistic and craft products.

Already at the beginning of the second stage of its history, Carthage becomes such a significant city that it can begin its own colonization. The first colony was established by the Carthaginians around the middle of the 7th century. BC. on Ebes Island off the east coast of Spain. Apparently, the Carthaginians did not want to oppose the interests of the metropolis in Southern Spain and were looking for workarounds to Spanish silver and tin. However, Carthaginian activity in the area soon ran into competition with the Greeks, who settled at the beginning of the 6th century. BC. in southern Gaul and eastern Spain. The first round of the Carthaginian-Greek wars was left to the Greeks, who, although they did not oust the Carthaginians from Ebes, managed to paralyze this important point.

Failure in the extreme west of the Mediterranean forced the Carthaginians to turn to its center. They founded a number of colonies east and west of their city and subjugated the old Phoenician colonies in Africa. Having strengthened, the Carthaginians could no longer tolerate such a situation that they paid tribute to the Libyans for their own territory. The attempt to free ourselves from tribute is associated with the name of the commander Malchus, who, having won victories in Africa, freed Carthage from tribute.

Somewhat later, in the 60-50s of the 6th century. BC, the same Malchus fought in Sicily, the result of which, apparently, was the subjugation of the Phoenician colonies on the island. And after victories in Sicily, Malchus crossed to Sardinia, but was defeated there. This defeat became for the Carthaginian oligarchs, who were afraid of the too victorious commander, a reason to sentence him to exile. In response, Malchus returned to Carthage and seized power. However, he was soon defeated and executed. Magon took the leading place in the state.

Mago and his successors had to solve difficult problems. To the west of Italy, the Greeks established themselves, threatening the interests of both the Carthaginians and some Etruscan cities. With one of these cities, Caere, Carthage was in particularly close economic and cultural contacts. In the middle of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginians and Ceretians entered into an alliance directed against the Greeks who settled in Corsica. Around 535 BC At the Battle of Alalia, the Greeks defeated the combined Carthaginian-Ceretian fleet, but suffered such heavy losses that they were forced to leave Corsica. The Battle of Alalia contributed to a clearer distribution of spheres of influence in the center of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was included in the Carthaginian sphere, which was confirmed by the treaty of Carthage with Rome in 509 BC. However, the Carthaginians were never able to completely capture Sardinia. A whole system of fortresses, ramparts and ditches separated their possessions from the territory of the free Sardis.

The Carthaginians, led by rulers and generals from the Magonid family, fought a stubborn struggle on all fronts: in Africa, Spain and Sicily. In Africa, they subjugated all the Phoenician colonies located there, including ancient Utica, which for a long time did not want to become part of their power, waged war with the Greek colony of Cyrene, located between Carthage and Egypt, repulsed the attempt of the Spartan prince Dorieus to establish himself east of Carthage and ousted the Greeks from the emerging there were their cities to the west of the capital. They launched an offensive against the local tribes. In a stubborn struggle, the Magonids managed to subdue them. Part of the conquered territory was directly subordinated to Carthage, forming its agricultural territory - chora. The other part was left to the Libyans, but was subject to the strict control of the Carthaginians, and the Libyans had to pay heavy taxes to their masters and serve in their army. The heavy Carthaginian yoke more than once caused powerful uprisings of the Libyans.

Phoenician ring with comb. Carthage. Gold. VI-V centuries BC.

In Spain at the end of the 6th century. BC. The Carthaginians took advantage of the Tartessian attack on Gades to, under the pretext of protecting their half-blooded city, intervene in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula. They captured Hades, which did not want to peacefully submit to its “savior,” which was followed by the collapse of the Tartessian state. Carthaginians at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. established control over its remains. However, the attempt to extend it to South-Eastern Spain caused strong resistance from the Greeks. At the naval battle of Artemisium, the Carthaginians were defeated and were forced to abandon their attempt. But the strait at the Pillars of Hercules remained under their control.

At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC. Sicily became the scene of a fierce Carthaginian-Greek battle. Having failed in Africa, Dorieus decided to establish himself in the west of Sicily, but was defeated by the Carthaginians and killed.

His death became the reason for the Syracusan tyrant Gelon to war with Carthage. In 480 BC. The Carthaginians, having entered into an alliance with Xerxes, who was advancing on Balkan Greece at that time, and taking advantage of the difficult political situation in Sicily, where some of the Greek cities opposed Syracuse and entered into an alliance with Carthage, launched an attack on the Greek part of the island. But in the fierce battle of Himera they were completely defeated, and their commander Hamilcar, son of Mago, died. As a result, the Carthaginians had difficulty holding on to the small part of Sicily they had previously captured.

The Magonids made attempts to establish themselves on the Atlantic coasts of Africa and Europe. For this purpose, in the first half of the 5th century. BC. two expeditions were undertaken:

1. in a southerly direction under the leadership of Hanno,
2. in the north, led by Gimilkon.

So in the middle of the 5th century. BC. The Carthaginian state was formed, which at that time became the largest and one of the strongest states in the Western Mediterranean. It included -

• the northern coast of Africa west of Greek Cyrenaica and a number of inland areas of that continent, as well as a small part of the Atlantic coast immediately south of the Pillars of Hercules;
• the southwestern part of Spain and a significant part of the Balearic Islands off the eastern coast of this country;
• Sardinia (actually only part of it);
• Phoenician cities in western Sicily;
• islands between Sicily and Africa.

The internal situation of the Carthaginian state

Position of the cities, allies and subjects of Carthage

The supreme god of the Carthaginians is Baal Hammon. Terracotta. I century AD Carthage.

This power was a complex phenomenon. Its core consisted of Carthage itself with the territory directly subordinate to it - Chora. Chora was located directly outside the city walls and was divided into separate territorial districts, governed by a special official; each district included several communities.

With the expansion of the Carthaginian power, non-African possessions were sometimes included in the chorus, such as the part of Sardinia captured by the Carthaginians. Another component of the power were the Carthaginian colonies, which exercised supervision over the surrounding lands, were in some cases centers of trade and craft, and served as a reservoir for absorbing the “surplus” population. They had certain rights, but were under the control of a special resident sent from the capital.

The power included the old colonies of Tire. Some of them (Gades, Utica, Kossoura) were officially considered equal to the capital, others legally occupied a lower position. But the official position and the true role in the power of these cities did not always coincide. Thus, Utica was practically completely subordinate to Carthage (which later led more than once to the fact that this city, under favorable conditions for it, took an anti-Carthaginian position), and the legally inferior cities of Sicily, in whose loyalty the Carthaginians were especially interested, enjoyed significant privileges.

The power included tribes and cities that were subject to Carthage. These were Libyans outside the Chora and subject tribes of Sardinia and Spain. They were also in different positions. The Carthaginians did not interfere unnecessarily in their internal affairs, limiting themselves to taking hostages, recruiting them for military service and a rather heavy tax.

The Carthaginians also ruled over their “allies.” They governed themselves, but were deprived of foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. Their attempt to evade submission to the Carthaginians was considered a rebellion. Some of them were also subject to taxes, their loyalty was ensured by hostages. But the further from the borders of the power, the more independent the local kings, dynasts and tribes became. A grid of territorial divisions was superimposed on this entire complex conglomerate of cities, peoples and tribes.

Economics and social structure

The creation of the power led to significant changes in the economic and social structure of Carthage. With the advent of land holdings, where the estates of aristocrats were located, a variety of agriculture began to develop in Carthage. It provided even more food to the Carthaginian merchants (however, the merchants were often wealthy landowners themselves), and this stimulated the further growth of Carthaginian trade. Carthage becomes one of the largest trading centers in the Mediterranean.

A large number of subordinate populations appeared, located at different levels of the social ladder. At the very top of this ladder stood the Carthaginian slave-owning aristocracy, which constituted the top of the Carthaginian citizenship - the “people of Carthage”, and at the very bottom were slaves and related groups of the dependent population. Between these extremes there was a whole range of foreigners, "metecs", the so-called "Sidonian men" and other categories of the incomplete, semi-dependent and dependent population, including residents of subordinate territories.

A contrast arose between Carthaginian citizenship and the rest of the population of the state, including slaves. The civil collective itself consisted of two groups -

1. aristocrats, or "powerful ones", and
2. “small”, i.e. plebs.

Despite the division into two groups, citizens acted together as a cohesive natural association of oppressors, interested in the exploitation of all other inhabitants of the state.

System of property and power in Carthage

The material basis of the civil collective was communal property, which appeared in two forms: the property of the entire community (for example, an arsenal, shipyards, etc.) and the property of individual citizens (lands, workshops, shops, ships, except state ones, especially military ones, etc.). d.). Along with communal property, there was no other sector. Even the property of temples was brought under the control of the community.

Sarcophagus of the priestess. Marble. IV-III centuries BC. Carthage.

The civil collective, in theory, also possessed full state power. We do not know exactly what positions were occupied by Malchus, who seized power, and the Magonids who came after him to rule the state (sources in this regard are very contradictory). In fact, their situation seemed to resemble that of the Greek tyrants. Under the leadership of the Magonids, the Carthaginian state was actually created. But then it seemed to the Carthaginian aristocrats that this family had become “difficult for the freedom of the state,” and the grandchildren of Mago were expelled. Expulsion of the Magonids in the middle of the 5th century. BC. led to the establishment of a republican form of government.

The highest power in the republic, at least officially, and at critical moments in fact, belonged to the people's assembly, which embodied the sovereign will of the civil collective. In fact, leadership was exercised by oligarchic councils and magistrates elected from among wealthy and noble citizens, primarily two sufet, in whose hands executive power was held throughout the year.

The people could intervene in the affairs of government only in case of disagreements among the rulers, which arose during periods of political crises. The people also had the right to choose, although very limited, councilors and magistrates. In addition, the “people of Carthage” were tamed in every possible way by the aristocrats, who gave them a share of the benefits from the existence of the power: not only the “mighty”, but also the “small” made profits from the maritime and trading power of Carthage, people sent for supervision were recruited from the “plebs” over subordinate communities and tribes, participation in wars provided a certain benefit, for in the presence of a significant mercenary army, citizens were still not completely separated from military service, they were represented at various levels of the land army, from privates to commanders, and especially in the fleet.

Thus, a self-sufficient civil collective was formed in Carthage, possessing sovereign power and relying on communal property, next to which there was neither royal power standing above citizenship nor a non-communal sector in socio-economic terms. Therefore, we can say that the polis arose here, i.e. this form of economic, social and political organization of citizens, which is characteristic of the ancient version of ancient society. Comparing the situation in Carthage with the situation in the metropolis, it should be noted that the cities of Phenicia itself, with all the development of the commodity economy, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the development of ancient society, and Carthage became an ancient state.

The formation of the Carthaginian polis and the formation of a power were the main content of the second stage of the history of Carthage. The Carthaginian power arose during the fierce struggle of the Carthaginians with both the local population and the Greeks. Wars with the latter were of a distinctly imperialist nature, because they were fought for the seizure and exploitation of foreign territories and peoples.

Rise of Carthage

From the second half of the 5th century. BC. The third stage of Carthaginian history begins. The power had already been created, and now the talk was about its expansion and attempts to establish hegemony in the Western Mediterranean. The main obstacle to this was initially the same Western Greeks. In 409 BC. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal landed in Motia, and a new round of wars in Sicily began, which lasted intermittently for more than a century and a half.

Gilded bronze cuirass. III-II centuries BC. Carthage.

Initially, success leaned towards Carthage. The Carthaginians subdued the Elims and Sicans who lived in western Sicily and began an attack on Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city on the island and the most implacable enemy of Carthage. In 406, the Carthaginians besieged Syracuse, and only the plague that began in the Carthaginian camp saved the Syracusans. World 405 BC assigned the western part of Sicily to Carthage. True, this success turned out to be fragile, and the border between Carthaginian and Greek Sicily always remained pulsating, moving either to the east or to the west as one side or another succeeded.

The failures of the Carthaginian army almost immediately responded to the aggravation of internal contradictions in Carthage, including powerful uprisings of the Libyans and slaves. End of the 5th - first half of the 4th century. BC. were a time of intense clashes within citizenship, both between separate groups of aristocrats, and, apparently, between the “plebs” involved in these clashes and aristocratic groups. At the same time, slaves rose up against their masters, and subject peoples against the Carthaginians. And only with calm within the state was the Carthaginian government able in the middle of the 4th century. BC. resume external expansion.

The Carthaginians then established control over southeast Spain, something they had tried unsuccessfully to do a century and a half earlier. In Sicily, they launched a new offensive against the Greeks and achieved a number of successes, once again finding themselves under the walls of Syracuse and even capturing their port. The Syracusans were forced to turn to their metropolis Corinth for help, and from there an army arrived led by the capable commander Timoleon. The commander of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily, Hanno, failed to prevent Timoleon's landing and was recalled to Africa, while his successor was defeated and cleared Syracuse harbor. Hanno, returning to Carthage, decided to take advantage of the situation that arose in connection with this and seize power. After the failure of the coup, he fled the city, armed 20 thousand slaves and called the Libyans and Moors to arms. The rebellion was defeated, Hanno, along with all his relatives, was executed, and only his son Gisgon managed to escape death and was expelled from Carthage.

However, soon the turn of affairs in Sicily forced the Carthaginian government to turn to Gisgono. The Carthaginians suffered a severe defeat from Timoleon, and then a new army led by Gisgon was sent there. Gisgon entered into an alliance with some of the tyrants of the Greek cities of the island and defeated individual detachments of Timoleon's army. This allowed in 339 BC. conclude a peace relatively beneficial for Carthage, according to which he retained his possessions in Sicily. After these events, the Hannonid family became the most influential in Carthage for a long time, although there could be no talk of any tyranny, as was the case with the Magonids.

The wars with the Syracusan Greeks went on as usual and with varying degrees of success. At the end of the 4th century. BC. the Greeks even landed in Africa, directly threatening Carthage. The Carthaginian commander Bomilcar decided to take advantage of the opportunity and seize power. But the citizens spoke out against him, suppressing the rebellion. And soon the Greeks were repulsed from the Carthaginian walls and returned to Sicily. The attempt of the Epirus king Pyrrhus to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily in the 70s was also unsuccessful. III century BC. All these endless and tedious wars showed that neither the Carthaginians nor the Greeks had the strength to take Sicily from each other.

The emergence of a new rival - Rome

The situation changed in the 60s. III century BC, when a new predator intervened in this fight - Rome. In 264, the first war began between Carthage and Rome. In 241 it ended with the complete loss of Sicily.

This outcome of the war exacerbated the contradictions in Carthage and gave rise to an acute internal crisis there. Its most striking manifestation was a powerful uprising, in which mercenary soldiers took part, dissatisfied with the non-payment of money owed to them, the local population, who sought to throw off the heavy Carthaginian oppression, and slaves who hated their masters. The uprising took place in the immediate vicinity of Carthage, probably also covering Sardinia and Spain. The fate of Carthage hung in the balance. With great difficulty and at the cost of incredible cruelty, Hamilcar, who had previously become famous in Sicily, managed to suppress this uprising, and then went to Spain, continuing the “pacification” of the Carthaginian possessions. Sardinia had to say goodbye, losing it to Rome, which threatened a new war.

The second aspect of the crisis was the increasing role of citizenship. The rank and file, who in theory held sovereign power, now sought to transform theory into practice. A democratic “party” arose led by Hasdrubal. A split also occurred among the oligarchy, in which two factions emerged.

1. One was led by Hanno from the influential Hannonid family - they stood for a cautious and peaceful policy that excluded a new conflict with Rome;
2. and the other - Hamilcar, representing the Barkids family (nicknamed Hamilcar - Barca, lit., “lightning”) - they were active, with the goal of taking revenge from the Romans.

Rise of the Barcids and the war with Rome

Presumably a bust of Hannibal Barca. Found in Capua in 1932

Wide circles of citizens were also interested in revenge, for whom the influx of wealth from the subject lands and from the monopoly of maritime trade was beneficial. Therefore, an alliance arose between the Barcids and the Democrats, sealed by the marriage of Hasdrubal with the daughter of Hamilcar. Relying on the support of democracy, Hamilcar managed to overcome the machinations of his enemies and go to Spain. In Spain, Hamilcar and his successors from the Barcid family, including his son-in-law Hasdrubal, greatly expanded the Carthaginian possessions.

After the overthrow of the Magonids, the ruling circles of Carthage did not allow the unification of military and civil functions in the same hands. However, during the war with Rome, they began to practice similar things, following the example of the Hellenistic states, but not at the national level, as was the case under the Magonids, but at the local level. Such was the power of the Barkids in Spain. But the Barkids exercised their powers on the Iberian Peninsula independently. Strong reliance on the army, close ties with democratic circles in Carthage itself and the special relations established between the Barcids and the local population contributed to the emergence in Spain of a semi-independent Barcid power, essentially of a Hellenistic type.

Hamilcar already considered Spain as a springboard for a new war with Rome. His son Hannibal in 218 BC provoked this war. The Second Punic War began. Hannibal himself went to Italy, leaving his brother in Spain. Military operations unfolded on several fronts, and the Carthaginian commanders (especially Hannibal) won a number of victories. But victory in the war remained with Rome.

World 201 BC deprived Carthage of the navy and all non-African possessions and forced the Carthaginians to recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa, to whose king the Carthaginians had to return all the possessions of his ancestors (this article placed a “time bomb” under Carthage), and the Carthaginians themselves had no right to wage war without permission Rome. This war not only deprived Carthage of its position as a great power, but also significantly limited its sovereignty. The third stage of Carthaginian history, which began with such happy omens, ended with the bankruptcy of the Carthaginian aristocracy, which had ruled the republic for so long.

Internal position

At this stage, there was no radical transformation in the economic, social and political life of Carthage. But certain changes still took place. In the 4th century. BC. Carthage began minting its own coins. A certain Hellenization of part of the Carthaginian aristocracy occurs, and two cultures emerge in Carthaginian society, as is typical for the Hellenistic world. As in the Hellenistic states, in a number of cases civil and military power was concentrated in the same hands. In Spain, a semi-independent Barkid power emerged, the heads of which felt a kinship with the then rulers of the Middle East, and where a system of relations between the conquerors and the local population appeared, similar to that existing in the Hellenistic states.

Carthage had large expanses of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states, Carthage developed large agricultural plantation farms on a large scale, employing the labor of numerous slaves. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily and then in Italy.

In the VI century. BC. or maybe in the 5th century. BC. in Carthage lived the writer and theorist of the plantation slave economy Mago, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army that besieged Carthage in the middle of the 2nd century. BC, an order was given to preserve this work. And it was really saved. By decree of the Roman Senate, Mago's work was translated from Phoenician into Latin, and then was used by all agricultural theorists in Rome. For their plantation economy, for their craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, selected by them from among prisoners of war and purchased.

Sunset of Carthage

The defeat in the second war with Rome opened the last stage of Carthaginian history. Carthage lost its power, and its possessions were reduced to a small district near the city itself. Opportunities to exploit the non-Carthaginian population disappeared. Large groups of dependent and semi-dependent populations escaped the control of the Carthaginian aristocracy. The agricultural area shrank sharply, and trade again assumed predominant importance.

Glass vessels for ointments and balms. OK. 200 BC

If earlier not only the nobility, but also the “plebs” received certain benefits from the existence of the power, now they have disappeared. This naturally caused an acute social and political crisis, which now went beyond the existing institutions.

In 195 BC. Hannibal, having become a Sufet, carried out a reform of the state structure that dealt a blow to the very foundations of the previous system with its dominance of the aristocracy and opened the way to practical power, on the one hand, for broad layers of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these layers. Under these conditions, a fierce political struggle unfolded in Carthage, reflecting acute contradictions within the civil collective. First, the Carthaginian oligarchy managed to take revenge, with the help of the Romans, forcing Hannibal to flee without completing the work he started. But the oligarchs were unable to maintain their power intact.

By the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Three political factions fought in Carthage. During this struggle, Hasdrubal became the leading figure, heading the anti-Roman group, and his position led to the establishment of a regime similar to the Greek minor tyranny. The rise of Hasdrubal frightened the Romans. In 149 BC. Rome began a third war with Carthage. This time, for the Carthaginians, it was no longer about domination over certain subjects and not about hegemony, but about their own life and death. The war practically came down to the siege of Carthage. Despite the heroic resistance of citizens, in 146 BC. the city fell and was destroyed. Most of the citizens died in the war, and the rest were taken into slavery by the Romans. The history of Phoenician Carthage is over.

The history of Carthage shows the process of transformation of the eastern city into an ancient state and the formation of a polis. And having become a polis, Carthage also experienced a crisis of this form of organization of ancient society. At the same time, it must be emphasized that we do not know what the way out of the crisis could be here, since the natural course of events was interrupted by Rome, which dealt a fatal blow to Carthage. The Phoenician cities of the metropolis, which developed in different historical conditions, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the ancient world and, having become part of the Hellenistic states, already within them moved to a new historical path.

Founding of ancient Carthage

In the first volume of our work, we became acquainted with the different areas of activity of the Phoenicians; we have seen that they dominated the Mediterranean before Greek trade developed; that the enterprising merchants of Tire and Sidon founded settlements on all the shores and islands of this sea, caught purple shells, developed mines in areas rich in metals, and conducted extremely profitable barter trade with semi-wild native tribes; that the wealth of Spain and Africa was brought on “Tarshish ships” to the magnificent trading cities of Phenicia, that the tyrants, under the patronage of Melqart, the “king” of their “city,” founded trading posts and cities in places convenient for trade on the Mediterranean coast. We also saw that due to internal strife (I, 505 et seq.) some of the rich citizens left Tire and founded Carthage, the “New City”, on the cape of the African coast opposite Sicily; that thanks to the fertility of the surrounding area, its favorable position for trade, the enterprise, education and business experience of its inhabitants, this city soon achieved great power and became much richer and stronger than Tire.

Expansion of Carthage's rule in Africa

At first, the main concern of the Carthaginians was to strengthen their power over the surrounding regions. At first they were forced to give tribute or gifts to the kings of neighboring agricultural and pastoral tribes, so that the predatory natives would refrain from attacking them. But soon they, partly by mental superiority and clever politics, partly by force of arms and the founding of colonies in the lands of these tribes, managed to subjugate them. The Carthaginians tied the Numidian kings to themselves with honors, gifts, and other means, among other things, by marrying off girls from their noble families to them.

By establishing their trading colonies, the Carthaginians achieved the same benefits. like the Romans founded military colonies: they rid the capital of the restless poor, gave these poor people prosperity, and spread their language. their religious and civil institutions, their nationality, and thus strengthened their dominion over vast areas. Settlers from Phenicia strengthened the Canaanite element in northern Africa, so that the Livo-Phoenicians, a people descended from the mixing of colonists with the natives, became predominant not only in the coastal regions of Zeugitana and Byzakia, but also at a great distance from the sea. The Phoenician language and civilization penetrated far into the interior of Libya; at the courts of the kings of the nomadic tribes they spoke and wrote in Phoenician.

The Livo-Phoenicians, who lived throughout the country in villages and small unfortified cities, were very useful to the citizens of the trading cities of the seaside. Receiving large income from agriculture, they paid Carthage a significant land tax, supplied trading cities with food supplies and various other goods; they kept the pastoral Numidian tribes, who roamed the abundant pastures along the slopes of the Atlas, from raids, and taught them to agriculture and a sedentary way of life; constituted the bulk of the Carthaginian troops and the main element of the settlers during the founding of colonies overseas; were porters and workers on the Carthaginian pier, sailors and warriors on Carthaginian ships.

The mercenary troops of the Carthaginians were recruited for the most part from Livo-Phoenician villagers, strong people, accustomed to endure hardships and hardships. The cavalry for the Phoenicians was supplied by Numidian tribes that roamed the outskirts of the desert. The Carthaginian citizens formed a sacred band that surrounded the military leaders. The Livo-Phoenician infantry with the Numidian cavalry and with a small number of Carthaginians formed a brave army that fought well under the command of the Carthaginian generals in Africa, at sea, and in foreign lands. But the greedy traders of Carthage oppressed the agricultural and pastoral population of Africa, incurring their hatred, which often manifested itself in dangerous uprisings, accompanied by ferocious revenge.

Ruins of ancient Carthage on Byrsa Hill

Having achieved great power, Carthage easily acquired dominion over those Phoenician colonies that were founded before it: Hippo, Hadrumet, Major Leptida, Minor Leptida, Thaps and other cities of that coast (I, 524) were forced to recognize the power of Carthage over themselves and pay him tribute; some of them submitted voluntarily, others were subdued by force; only Utica retained some independence. The Phoenician cities of Africa, subject to Carthage, gave him troops and paid taxes, the amount of which was generally significant; in return, their citizens could acquire land property in the Carthaginian possessions; their marriages with Carthaginian families were full-fledged, and they themselves enjoyed the protection of Carthaginian laws.

Navigation of ancient Carthage

Conquering neighboring regions, the Carthaginians undertook long voyages and conducted trade on a wide scale. A Greek translation has reached us of the report of the expedition of Hanno, a brave Carthaginian sailor who wrote a story in Phoenician about his discoveries and gave it to the Temple of Baal for safekeeping. He, with 60 ships and a large number of settlers, set off beyond the Pillars of Hercules, sailed along the western coast of Africa, rounded the “Southern Cape” and founded five settlements behind it, the southernmost of which was on the island of Kerne (I, 524). The Carthaginians conducted a profitable trade there, exchanging ivory, leopard and lion skins for clothes and beautiful dishes from the smooth-haired blacks of that coastal region.

They say that the Carthaginians knew the island of Madeira, and that they thought to move there if their enemies defeated them in their homeland. Around the same time as Hanno made his voyage, another trading expedition of the Carthaginians, following the example of the Tyrians, went along the western coast of Ireland (I, 527). Through pastoral tribes, the Carthaginians conducted active trade with central Africa. Caravan routes from Egyptian Thebes, the southern deserts and Carthage converged in present-day Fezzan; there the Carthaginians traded gold sand, precious stones and black slaves for dates, palm wine and salt.

Filena

After a long struggle with the Cyrene Greeks, the Carthaginians agreed on where the border between their possessions should be; it was carried out through the desert and determined very advantageously for the Carthaginians, thanks to the self-sacrifice of the Philaenov, who agreed to die for the benefit of their homeland.

The condition was that the ambassadors would leave Cyrene and Carthage at the same time to meet each other, and that where they met would be the border. The Carthaginian ambassadors were two Philene brothers. They walked very hastily and went much further than the Cyrenians expected. The Cyrene ambassadors, angry and fearing to be punished at home, began to accuse them of deceit and finally offered them a choice of either being buried alive in the place where they claimed that there should be a border, or allowing it to be moved further from Cyrene; The Cyrene ambassadors volunteered to be buried themselves in the place where they wanted to designate the border. The Filenes sacrificed their lives for their homeland and were buried in the place they reached. It became a border. The Carthaginians placed “altars of Philaenov” on their graves and built monuments in their honor.

Colonies of ancient Carthage

Carthaginian possessions were not limited to African lands. When the Nineveh and Babylonian kings began to attack Phenicia and its power fell, and then the Persians conquered it and forced the Phoenician sailors to engage in service on warships instead of trading (I, 509, 534 seq.), Carthage, considering itself the heir of Tire, of which it was a citizen founded, assumed dominion over the Phoenician colonies overseas. We saw (I, 517 et seq., 521 seq.) that the rule of Tire in Spain extended very far, that its citizens mined precious metals there, exported wool and fish from there, caught purple shells off the Spanish coast, that Tarshish ships loaded silver, were the pride of Tire, amazed the peoples neighboring Phenicia; all the Spanish possessions of Tire, which had the rich Hades as its center, submitted to Carthage either voluntarily or by force; The Phoenician colonies on the Balearic and Pitius Islands also submitted. The wealth of these trading posts and the treasures of the Spanish mines now went to Carthage; the colonies of Tire in southern Spain began, like the African ones, to pay tribute and give troops to Carthage. The Phoenician colonies on the Italian islands also submitted to him. Between 550 and 450, the chiefs of the Carthaginian fleets and troops Mago, his sons (Gazdrubal, Hamilcar) and grandsons conquered to Carthage all the colonies and trading posts of Tire in Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Malta and many native tribes of these islands. The ancient Phoenician colony, on the island of Sardinia, Caralis (Cagliari), was enlarged by new settlers; Libyan colonists began to cultivate the fertile coastal parts of the island, the natives left slavery in the mountains of the central part. The Carthaginians exported honey and wax from Corsica; On the Elbe (Etalia), rich in iron ore, they began to mine iron.

When the Phocians, fleeing from the Persians, wanted to settle in Corsica, the Carthaginians, uniting with the Etruscans, drove them out (II, 387). The Carthaginians tried with all their might to prevent their dangerous rivals, the Greeks, from settling on the coasts of the western part of the Mediterranean Sea and, if possible, to constrain those of their colonies that were already founded there. To do this, they concluded a trade agreement with Rome and Latium, which we have already mentioned; their squadrons sailed from the Spanish islands to attack Massalia; simultaneously with the invasion of Xerxes in Greece, Hamilcar sailed with a huge army to Sicily; this expedition ended, as we know, with his defeat at Himera (II, 513 seq.). The Carthaginians had under their rule the old Phoenician colonies in Sicily: Motia, Solunt and Panormus, and founded Lilybaeum there; This beautiful island, rich in bread, wine and olive oil, and having such an advantageous position for trade, they considered extremely important for their trading and colonization activities. In the next section we will see how stubbornly they fought for dominion over Sicily for a century and a half with the Greeks; but they firmly controlled only the western part of it up to the Galika River; The rest of the coastal regions were retained by the Greeks, and in the mountains of the central part the natives continued to graze their herds: the Elimos, the Sicans, the Sicels, and served as mercenaries either in the Carthaginian or in the Greek armies. On the neighboring islands of Sicily, Lipari, Aegata, and other small islands and on Malta, the Carthaginians had piers and warehouses for goods.

Carthaginian power

Thus, from a Tyrian trading post, Carthage became the capital of a vast state, a city so rich that there were hardly any other trading cities equal in power before. From Tingis to greater Sirte, all the cities and tribes of northern Africa obeyed him: some paid tribute, others gave troops, or cultivated the fields of Carthaginian citizens. Owning many cities, marinas and fortifications along all the shores and islands of the western Mediterranean Sea, the Carthaginians considered it their property and left little room for Etruscan and Greek trade there. Knowing how to use the products of those countries, acquiring enormous wealth from them, they also used the forces of the natives for their wars. Almost all western tribes served under Carthaginian banners. Next to detachments of Carthaginian citizens, shining with rich weapons, Libyan infantry with long spears went into battle. Numidian horsemen, dressed in skins, rode on small hot horses and fought with darts; Spanish and Gallic mercenaries in colorful national costumes, lightly armed Ligurians and Campanians helped them; the terrible Balearic slingers threw lead bullets with their belts with such force that it resembled the effect of rifle shots.

Prosperity of the Carthage region

The income of Carthage was enormous. Malaya Leptida paid him annually 365 talents (more than 500,000 rubles); from this it can be seen that the amount of tribute from all regions of the state reached a colossal figure; In addition, large incomes were generated by mines, customs duties, and land taxes on villagers. State revenues were so great that Carthaginian citizens did not need to pay any taxes. They enjoyed a flourishing state. In addition to income from extensive trade and factories, they received cash payments, or part of the product from their estates, which lay in an extremely fertile country, and occupied profitable positions as tax collectors and rulers in cities and districts subject to Carthage. Descriptions of Carthage and its environs by Polybius, Diodorus and other ancient writers show that the wealth of the Carthaginians was very great. These descriptions say that the Carthaginian region was covered with gardens and plantations, because there were canals everywhere that provided sufficient irrigation. Country houses stretched in continuous rows, testifying in their splendor to the wealth of the owners. The dwellings of the Carthaginians were filled with all sorts of things needed for convenience and pleasure. Taking advantage of the long peace, the Carthaginians collected huge reserves of them. Everywhere in the Carthaginian region there were many vineyards, olive groves, and orchards. Herds of cattle, sheep and goats grazed across the beautiful meadows; There were huge horse farms in the lowlands. Bread grew luxuriously in the fields; There was especially a lot of wheat and barley. Countless cities and towns of the fertile Carthaginian region were surrounded by vineyards, pomegranate, fig, and all sorts of other fruit orchards. Prosperity was visible everywhere, because the noble Carthaginians loved to live on their estates and competed with each other in their concerns about their improvement. Agriculture was in a flourishing state among the Carthaginians; They had agronomic works so good that the Romans subsequently translated these books into their own language, and the Roman government recommended them to Italian rural owners. Just as the general appearance of the country testified to the wealth of the Carthaginians, so the vastness and beauty of the capital, the enormity of its fortifications, the splendor of public buildings, showed the power of the state, the wisdom and generosity of its government.

Geographical location of Carthage

Carthage stood on a cape, connected to the mainland only by a narrow isthmus; this location was very advantageous for maritime trade but at the same time convenient for defense. The coast was steep; after the flood from the sea, the city was surrounded by only one wall, but on the mainland side it was protected by a triple row of walls that were 30 cubits high and fortified with towers. Between the walls there were dwellings for soldiers, warehouses for food supplies, stables for cavalry, sheds for war elephants. The harbor on the open sea side was designated for merchant ships, and the other, called Coton, named after the island located in it, served for warships. There were arsenals on the island. Near the military harbor there was a public assembly square. From the wide square, lined with tall houses, the main street of the city led to the citadel, called Birsa: from Birsa, a 60-step climb led to the top of the hill, on which stood the rich, famous temple of Aesculapius (Esmuna).

Government structure of ancient Carthage

Now we must talk about the state structure of Carthage, as far as it is known to us from scanty fragmentary news.

Aristotle says that in the government of Carthage aristocratic and democratic elements were combined, but the aristocratic ones predominated; He finds it very good that the Carthaginian state was ruled by noble families, but the people were not completely excluded from participating in government. From this we see that Carthage retained in general terms those institutions that existed in Tire and belonged to all Phoenician cities (I, 511 et seq.). Noble families retained all government power in their hands, but owed their influential position not only to their nobility, but also to wealth; the personal merits of their members were also of great importance. The government council, which the Greeks call the gerusia, and the Romans the senate, consisted of aristocrats; the number of its members was 300; he had the greatest power over state affairs; its committee was another council, consisting of either 10 or 30 members. The council was presided over by two dignitaries, called sufet (judges); ancient writers compare them either with the Spartan kings or with the Roman consuls; therefore, some scientists think that their rank was for life, and others that they were elected for a year. The second opinion should be considered the most probable: annual elections are more consistent with the character of an aristocratic republic than the lifetime of the dignity. Current affairs were probably managed by a council of ten (or thirty) senators with the participation of sufets; Roman writers call the members of this council principes; important matters were, of course, decided by the general meeting of the Senate. Those issues the decision of which exceeded the power of the Senate, or on which the Sufet and the Senate could not agree among themselves, were given to the decision of the people's assembly, which, it seems, also had the power to approve or reject the elections of dignitaries and military leaders made by the Senate. But generally speaking, the popular assembly had little influence. Chairmen of the Senate, Sufet. also presided over the court. Whether the Sufets were commanders-in-chief by their very rank, or received the power of commanders-in-chief only for a special purpose, we do not know; whether both of them could go on a campaign, or whether one of them had to remain in the city to manage administrative and judicial affairs, we also do not know. The military power of the commander-in-chief was unlimited; but in concluding treaties he had to obey the opinion of the committee of senators accompanying the army. To protect the state from the lust for power of commanders, the aristocracy has long established the “Council of Hundred,” which was the custodian of the existing order, which had the right to put military leaders to trial and punish all kinds of malicious intent.

In aristocratic states there are always several families that enjoy very great influence on state affairs due to their enormous wealth. If one of these families acquires special fame for its merits, has great commanders who pass on their military experience to their children, then it receives such predominance in the state that thoughts of subjugating the homeland to its dominion can easily arise in it. In the first half of the 6th century, the military leader Malchus (Malchus), punished by exile for failure in the war on the island of Sardinia, went with an army to Carthage and crucified ten senators hostile to him on the cross. The Senate managed to defeat this ambitious man, but one could be wary of other such attempts. The danger became especially great since the family of Mago, the founder of the power of the Carthaginians at sea, the first commander to make great conquests outside Africa, acquired enormous influence; his talents were hereditary through three generations of his offspring. To protect the state from the ambitions of military leaders, the Senate chose from among itself the Council of the Sta, which was entrusted with examining the actions of military leaders upon their return from the war and keeping them in obedience to the laws. Such was the origin of the formidable board called the council of Sta. It was established, as we see, to protect the republican order, but later became a political inquisition, before whose despotic power everyone had to bow. Aristotle compares the council of the Sta to the Spartan ephors. This council was not content with curbing the evil intentions of military leaders and other ambitious people; it arrogated to itself the right to observe the way of life of the citizens. He punished military leaders who failed with such merciless cruelty that many took their own lives, preferring this to his ferocious judgment. Moreover, the Council of Sta acted very biasedly. "In Carthage." says Livy (XXXIII, 46) “The Committee of Judges” (i.e., the Council of the Hundred), elected for life, acts autocratically. Everyone's property, honor and life are in their hands. Whoever has one of them as his enemy has all of them as enemies, and when judges are hostile to man, there will be no shortage of accusers.” The members of the Council of the Sta assigned life to their rank and strengthened their power by choosing their comrades to fill vacant positions. Hannibal, with the assistance of the democratic party, imbued with patriotism and striving to transform the state, took away the lifetime dignity of the members of the Council of the Hundred and introduced annual elections of its members; this reform was an important step towards replacing oligarchic rule with democratic rule.

Religion of ancient Carthage

Just as in their state structure the Carthaginians retained the order that existed in Tire, so in religion they adhered to Phoenician beliefs and rituals, although they borrowed from other peoples some deities and forms of worship related to those familiar to them. The Phoenician deities of nature, who were personifications of its powers, forever remained the dominant deities of the Carthaginians. The Tyrian Melqart also retained among the Carthaginians the meaning of the supreme tribal god, as we see, by the way, from the fact that they constantly sent embassies and gifts to his Tyrian temple. The representations about him personified the wanderings of the people engaged in maritime trade; he was in a symbolic union with Astarte-Dido, the patroness of Carthage; serving him was the connection that connected all Phoenician settlements; therefore, he was of high importance to the Carthaginians, and his cult was the most important among them. We have already seen (I, 538 et seq.) that they maintained, in all its horror, the terrible service of the god of the sun and fire Moloch, whose sacrifices received such a tragic development. Deeply rooted in the national character of the Phoenicians were the contrasts of voluptuousness and sadness, effeminate devotion to pleasure and the capacity for extreme effort, readiness for self-torture, courageous energy and sluggish despair, arrogance and servility, love of refined pleasures and rude ferocity; these contrasts were expressed in the service of Ashtoreth and Moloch; therefore, the Carthaginians loved him to such an extent that voluptuous rites and human sacrifices to Molech remained in full force among them, when in Tire itself this depravity and this inhumanity had already been destroyed by the influence of the Persians and Greeks and the development of humanity.

“The religious worldview of the Carthaginians was harsh and gloomy,” says Boetticher: “with sadness in her soul, but with a forced smile, to please the deity, the mother sacrificed her beloved child to a terrible idol; such was the whole character of the life of the people. Just as the religion of the Carthaginians was cruel and servile, so they themselves were gloomy, slavishly obedient to the government, cruel to their subjects and foreigners, arrogant in anger, timid in fear. The vile sacrifices to Moloch drowned out all human feelings in them; therefore, it is not surprising that with cold cruelty they mercilessly tortured and killed the defeated enemies, and in their fanaticism did not spare either the temples or tombs of the enemy’s land.” On the island of Sardinia, prisoners of war and old people were also sacrificed to God with forced laughter (from this laughter, some produce the expression sardonic laughter). It would be better for the Carthaginians not to believe in any gods than to believe in such, says Plutarch, indignation at these religious horrors.

The liturgical rites of the Carthaginians were as inextricably linked with all matters of political and military life as among the Romans. Military leaders made sacrifices before the battle and during the battle itself; with the army there were interpreters of the will of the gods, which had to be obeyed; trophies of victories were brought to the temples; when founding a new colony, first of all, they built a temple for the deity who would be its patron; when concluding treaties, the highest deities were called as witnesses, and in particular the deities of fire, earth, air, water, meadows and rivers; in honor of people who provided great services to the fatherland, altars and temples were erected; for example, Hamilcar, who sacrificed himself to the god of fire in the Battle of Himera, the brothers Philenes, Alet, who discovered silver ore in New Carthage, were revered as heroes, and temples were erected as altars to them. Both in Tire and in Carthage, the high priest was the first dignitary after the main rulers of the state.

Character of the Carthaginians

Reviewing the institutions and morals of the Carthaginians, we see that they brought to the extreme development the general character traits of the Semitic tribe and especially the Phoenician branch of it. In all Semites, selfishness is sharply manifested: it is manifested both in their tendency to acquire profit through trade and industry and in their fragmentation into small closed states, clans and families. It favored the development of energy and prevented the emergence of eastern despotism, in which the individual is absorbed by the general, enslavement; but he directed his thoughts exclusively to concerns about real life, rejected all ideal and humane aspirations, and often forced him to sacrifice the good of society for the benefits of the party, or for personal interests. The Carthaginians had many qualities worthy of high respect; courageous enterprise led them to great discoveries, found trade routes to distant unknown countries; their practical mind improved the inventions made in Phenicia, thereby contributing to the development of human culture; their patriotism was so strong that they willingly sacrificed everything for the benefits of their homeland; their troops were well organized; their fleets dominated the western seas; their ships surpassed all others in size and speed; their state life was more comfortable and stronger than in most of the other republics of the ancient world; their cities and villages were rich. But with these venerable qualities they had great shortcomings and vices. Enviously, they tried by all means, both force and cunning, to eliminate other peoples from participating in their trade and, abusing their strength at sea, often engaged in piracy; they were ruthlessly harsh towards their subjects, did not allow them to derive any benefit from the victories won with their assistance, did not bother to bind them to themselves with good, fair relations; they were ferocious to their slaves, countless numbers of whom worked on their ships, in their mines, in their trade and industry; they were harsh and ungrateful regarding their mercenary troops. Their state life suffered from aristocratic despotism, the combination of several positions in one hand, the corruption of dignitaries, and disregard for the common good because of the benefits of the party. Their wealth and innate penchant for sensual pleasures gave them such luxury and immorality that all the peoples of the ancient world condemned their debauchery; developed by their religious rituals, it reached the point of vileness. Gifted with a strong mind, they used their abilities not so much to develop science, literary and artistic activities, but to come up with tricks, to gain benefits for themselves by deception. They so selfishly used, to the detriment of others, the insight and flexibility of mind innate to all Semitic peoples that the expression “Punic,” that is, Carthaginian “conscientiousness,” became a proverb to denote unscrupulous deceit.

Literature and Science of Ancient Carthage

They did not strive for ideal goals and did not value higher mental activities; did not create culture, like the Greeks, did not create a legal state order, like the Romans, did not create astronomy, like the Babylonians and Egyptians; even in technical arts they seem not only not to have surpassed the Tyrians, but also not to have equaled them. Perhaps their literature was not as insignificant as it seems with the destruction of all its works; perhaps they had good books, destroyed by the terrible military storms that devastated the Carthaginian country; but the very fact that all Carthaginian literature perished proves that it did not have much internal dignity; otherwise it would not have all disappeared almost without a trace in times that were far from devoid of intellectual interests; more would have been preserved from it than the account of Hanno's expedition in Greek translation, Mago's treatise on agriculture and vague news of what the Romans gave to his allies, the native kings, Carthaginian books of historical content and some other literary works. The field of poetry was alien to the Carthaginians, philosophy was an unknown secret to them; their art served only luxury and brilliance. Caring exclusively about real life, they did not know the highest aspirations, did not know the peace of mind and happiness that love for ideal goods brings, did not know the eternally young kingdom of fantasy, not destroyed by any blows of fate.

Carthage arose several centuries earlier than the small Gallic settlement of Lutetia, which later became Paris. It already existed in the times when the Etruscans, the Romans’ teachers in art, navigation and crafts, appeared in the north of the Apennine Peninsula. Carthage was already a city when a bronze plow was dug around the Palatine Hill, thereby performing the ritual of founding the Eternal City.

Like the beginning of any city whose history goes back centuries, the founding of Carthage is also associated with legend. 814 BC e. - the ships of the Phoenician queen Elissa moored near Utica, a Phoenician settlement in North Africa.

They were met by the leader of the nearby Berber tribes. The local population had no desire to allow a whole detachment that arrived from overseas to settle permanently. However, the leader agreed to Elissa’s request to allow them to settle there. But with one condition: the territory that the aliens can occupy must be covered with the skin of only one bull.

The Phoenician queen was not at all embarrassed and ordered her people to cut this skin into the thinnest strips, which were then laid out on the ground in a closed line - tip to tip. As a result, a rather large area emerged, which was enough to found an entire settlement, called Birsa - “Skin”. The Phoenicians themselves called it “Karthadasht” - “New City”, “New Capital”. After this name was transformed into Carthage, Cartagena, in Russian it sounds like Carthage.

After a brilliant operation with the skin of a bull, the Phoenician queen took another heroic step. Then the leader of one of the local tribes wooed her to strengthen the alliance with the newcomer Phoenicians. After all, Carthage grew and began to gain respect in the area. But Elissa refused female happiness and chose a different fate. In the name of establishing a new city-state, in the name of the rise of the Phoenician people and so that the gods would sanctify Carthage with their attention and strengthen the royal power, the queen ordered to build a large fire. For the gods, as she said, ordered her to perform the ritual of sacrifice...

And when a huge fire flared up, Elissa threw herself into the hot flames. The ashes of the first queen - the founder of Carthage - lay in the ground, on which the walls of a powerful state soon grew, which experienced centuries of prosperity and died, like the Phoenician queen Elissa, in fiery agony.

This legend has no scientific confirmation yet, and the most ancient finds, which were obtained as a result of archaeological excavations, date back to the 7th century BC. e.

The Phoenicians brought knowledge, craft traditions, and a higher level of culture to these lands and quickly established themselves as skilled and skilled workers. Along with the Egyptians, they mastered the production of glass, excelled in weaving and pottery, as well as in leather dressing, patterned embroidery, and the manufacture of bronze and silver items. Their goods were prized throughout the Mediterranean. The economic life of Carthage was usually built on trade, agriculture and fishing. It was at that time that olive groves and orchards were planted along the shores of what is now Tunisia, and the plains were plowed. Even the Romans marveled at the agricultural knowledge of the Carthaginians.

The hardworking and skillful inhabitants of Carthage dug artesian wells, built dams and stone cisterns for water, grew wheat, cultivated gardens and vineyards, erected multi-story buildings, invented various mechanisms, watched the stars, wrote books...

Their glass was known throughout the ancient world, perhaps to an even greater extent than Venetian glass in the Middle Ages. The colorful purple fabrics of the Carthaginians, the secret of whose production was carefully hidden, were incredibly highly valued.

The cultural influence of the Phoenicians was also of great importance. They invented the alphabet - the same alphabet of 22 letters, which served as the basis for the writing of many peoples: for Greek writing, and for Latin, and for our writing.

Already 200 years after the city was founded, the Carthaginian power became prosperous and powerful. The Carthaginians founded trading posts on the Balearic Islands, they captured Corsica, and over time began to take control of Sardinia. By the 5th century BC. e. Carthage had already established itself as one of the largest empires in the Mediterranean. This empire covered a significant territory of the present Maghreb, had its possessions in Spain and Sicily; The Carthage fleet began to enter the Atlantic Ocean through Gibraltar, reaching England, Ireland and even the shores of Cameroon.

He had no equal in the entire Mediterranean Sea. Polybius wrote that the Carthaginian galleys were built in such a way “that they could move in any direction with the greatest ease... If the enemy, fiercely attacking, pressed such ships, they retreated without exposing themselves to danger: after all, light ships are not afraid of the open sea. If the enemy persisted in pursuit, the galleys turned around and, maneuvering in front of the formation of enemy ships or enveloping it from the flanks, again and again went to ram.” Under the protection of such galleys, the heavily laden Carthaginian sailing ships could go to sea without fear.

Everything was going well for the city. At that time, the influence of Greece, the constant enemy of Carthage, decreased significantly. The rulers of the city supported their power by an alliance with the Etruscans: this alliance was, in its own way, a shield that blocked the Greeks’ path to the trading oases of the Mediterranean. In the east, things were also going well for Carthage, but in that era Rome became a strong Mediterranean power.

It is known how the rivalry between Carthage and Rome ended. The sworn enemy of the famous city, Marcus Porcius Cato, at the end of each of his speeches in the Roman Senate, no matter what was said, repeated: “Still, I believe that!”

Cato himself visited Carthage as part of the Roman embassy at the end of the 2nd century BC. e. A noisy, prosperous city appeared before him. Large trade deals were concluded there, coins from different states ended up in the chests of the money changers, the mines regularly supplied silver, copper and lead, ships left the stocks.

Cato also visited the provinces, where he was able to see lush fields, lush vineyards, gardens and olive groves. The estates of the Carthaginian nobility were in no way inferior to the Roman ones, and sometimes even surpassed them in luxury and splendor of decoration.

The senator returned to Rome in the most gloomy mood. Setting out on his journey, he hoped to see signs of the decline of Carthage, that eternal and sworn rival of Rome. For more than a century, there has been a struggle between the two most powerful powers of the Mediterranean for the possession of colonies, convenient harbors, and supremacy at sea.

This struggle went on with varying degrees of success, but the Romans were able to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily and Andalusia forever. As a result of the African victories of Aemilian Scipio, Carthage paid Rome an indemnity of 10 thousand talents, gave up its entire fleet, war elephants and all Numidian lands. Such crushing defeats should have bled the state dry, but Carthage was reviving and growing stronger, which means it would again pose a threat to Rome...

So the senator thought, and only dreams of future vengeance dispersed his gloomy thoughts.

For three years, the legions of Aemilian Scipio besieged Carthage, and no matter how desperately its inhabitants resisted, they could not block the path of the Roman army. The battle for the city lasted for six days, and then it was taken by storm. For 10 days, Carthage was given over to plunder, and then razed to the ground. Heavy Roman plows plowed what remained of its streets and squares.

Salt was thrown into the ground so that the Carthaginian fields and gardens would no longer bear fruit. The surviving inhabitants, 55 thousand people, were sold into slavery. According to legend, Aemilian Scipio, whose troops took Carthage by storm, cried as he watched the capital of a powerful power perish.

The winners took away gold, silver, jewelry, ivory, carpets - everything that had accumulated in temples, sanctuaries, palaces and homes over the centuries. Almost all books and chronicles were lost in the fires. The Romans handed over the famous library of Carthage to their allies - the Numidian princes, and since that time it has disappeared without a trace. Only a treatise on agriculture by the Carthaginian Mago has survived.

But the greedy robbers, who ravaged the city and razed it to the ground, did not rest on this. It seemed to them that the Carthaginians, whose wealth was legendary, had hidden their treasures before the last battle. And for many more years, treasure seekers scoured the dead city.

24 years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans began to rebuild a new city in its place according to their own models - with wide streets and squares, with white stone palaces, temples and public buildings. Everything that was somehow able to survive the defeat of Carthage was now used in the construction of a new city, which was being revived in the Roman style.

In less than a few decades, Carthage, rising from the ashes, turned in beauty and importance into the second city of the state. All historians who described Carthage during the Roman period spoke of it as a city in which “luxury and pleasure reign.”

But Roman rule did not last forever. By the middle of the 5th century, the city came under the rule of Byzantium, and a century and a half later the first Arab military detachments came here. With retaliatory blows, the Byzantines again regained the city, but only for three years, and then it remained forever in the hands of the new conquerors.

The Berber tribes greeted the arrival of the Arabs calmly and did not interfere with the spread of Islam. Arab schools opened in all cities and even small villages, literature, medicine, theology, astronomy, architecture, folk crafts began to develop...

During Arab rule, when dynasties at war with each other were replaced very often, Carthage was relegated to the background. Destroyed once again, he could no longer rise, turning into a symbol of majestic immortality. People and ruthless time have left nothing of the former greatness of Carthage - the city that ruled over half of the ancient world. Neither the German lighthouse, nor the stone from the fortress wall, nor the temple of the god Eshmun, on the steps of which the defenders of the great ancient city fought to the last.

Now on the site of the legendary city is a quiet suburb of Tunisia. A small peninsula cuts into the horseshoe-shaped harbor of the former military fort. Here you can see fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone - all that remains of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet. Historians believe that the palace was built so that the admiral could always see the ships he commanded. And only a pile of stones (presumably from the acropolis) and the foundation of the temple of the gods Tanit and Baal indicate that Carthage was in fact a real place on earth. And if the wheel of history had turned differently, Carthage, instead of Rome, could have become the ruler of the ancient world.

Since the mid-twentieth century, excavations have been carried out there, and it turned out that not far from Birsa, an entire quarter of Carthage was preserved under a layer of ash. To this day, all our knowledge of the great city is mainly the testimony of its enemies. And therefore the evidence of Carthage itself is now becoming increasingly important. Tourists come here from all over the world to stand on this ancient land and experience its great past. Carthage is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and therefore it must be preserved...

Carthage is an ancient city whose name is probably known to everyone. This is a rare occurrence in history. Many cities no longer exist; their names, their history and significance have gradually been forgotten. Carthage was included in the list of exceptions to this rule.

Carthage is a Phoenician (also called Punic) city-state that existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia. The date of the founding of Carthage is indicated precisely - 814 BC. e. Founded by colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire, led by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled Tire after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tire, killed her husband Sychaeus in order to take over his wealth.

Location of Carthage

Carthage was founded on a promontory with access to the sea in the north and south. The city's location made it a leader in Mediterranean maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia. The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters.

Most of the walls were located on the shore, which made the city impregnable from the sea. The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers, and a theater. It was divided into four equal residential areas. Approximately in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times.

The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. Up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time for loading and unloading. Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.

The population of the city is unknown.

Carthage, conveniently located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, at the crossroads of trade and sea routes, gradually began to grow stronger and richer.

Initially it was a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The city's economy was based mainly on intermediary trade

The craft was underdeveloped and, in its basic technical and aesthetic characteristics, practically did not differ from the oriental one.

There was no agriculture, there was little land for farming.

The masters of Carthage did not succeed in creating works of art. Their works did not have any specific features different from those of the general Phoenicians.

Religion of Carthage

The Carthaginians, like other Mediterranean peoples, imagined the universe as divided into three worlds, one above the other. Perhaps this is the same world serpent, which the Ugaritians called Latanu, and the ancient Jews - Leviathan.

The earth was thought to lie between two oceans. The sun, rising from the eastern ocean, circled the earth, sank into the western ocean, which was considered the sea of ​​​​darkness and the abode of the dead. The souls of the dead could get there on ships or on dolphins.

The sky was the seat of the Carthaginian gods. Since the Carthaginians were immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire, they revered the gods of Canaan, but not all of them. And the Canaanite gods changed their appearance on new soil, absorbing the features of the local gods.

Foes of Tyr

Only one feature of the new city stands out, which influenced its future fate: the founders of the city were representatives of the opposition group that was defeated in Tire. Therefore, from the very beginning, Carthage did not enter the Tyrian state, but took an independent position, although it retained spiritual ties with its metropolis.

The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy. However, she hardly existed longer than the life of Elissa-Dido, the sister of the Tyrian king, who led the resettlement and became the queen of the newly founded city. The sources say nothing about the queen's children, and Justin's context directly indicates their absence. With the end of the royal family, a republic was established in Carthage.

As the city grew richer, its residents and city officials increased the land holdings around the city, seizing land or renting it from local tribes.

Power in Carthage was in the hands of the trade and craft oligarchy. The governing body was the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, declarations of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected magistrates-suffets. Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civilian, not involving control over the army. Together with the army commanders, they were elected by the people's assembly.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC. The Carthaginians began an active offensive policy in North Africa.

Carthaginian colonies were founded along the sea coast towards the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of Gibraltar in our opinion), as well as beyond them on the Atlantic coast. By the end of the 7th century. BC. there were Carthaginian colonies on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco (Like is like this near the present city of Al-Araysh (Laroche). An unnamed settlement (Carian Wall?) was also found near the city of al-Suweira (Mogador).).

The emergence of aggressive ambitions. Wars of Carthage

In the middle of the 6th century. BC. The Carthaginians, under the leadership of Malchus, waged war against the Libyans and, apparently, as a result of their victory, achieved exemption from paying rent for city land, which they had previously had to regularly pay to one of the local tribes. At the end of the 6th century. BC. The long-term struggle with Cyrene, a Greek colony in North Africa, to establish the border between the two states was also completed. The border was significantly moved away from Carthage to the east, towards Cyrene.

In the same centuries, Carthage strengthened itself on the Iberian Peninsula, where the Phoenician colonies led by Gades (now Cadiz) had even before that waged a stubborn struggle with Tartessus for trade routes to the British Isles, which were rich in tin. Tire and Carthage provided the inhabitants of Gades with all possible support. Having defeated Tartessus on land, they blockaded it and captured part of its territory. In the middle of the 7th century. BC e. Carthage founded its own colony of Ebess (now Ibiza) on the Balearic Islands, off the coast of Spain. Carthage also captured these islands from Tartessus.

In the second half of the 7th century. BC. The Carthaginians decided to gain a foothold on the peninsula. Hades perceived this move by Carthage as a threat to its monopoly position in the international trade of non-ferrous metals and put up stubborn resistance to Carthage. But the Carthaginians took Hades by storm and destroyed its walls. After this, other Phoenician colonies on the Iberian Peninsula undoubtedly came under the rule of Carthage.

Further advance of the Carthaginians in this area was stopped by the Greek (Phocean) colonization of the Mediterranean coast of the peninsula. Around 600 BC e. The Phocians inflicted a number of serious defeats on the Carthaginian fleet and stopped the spread of Carthaginian influence in Spain. The founding of the Phocian colony on the island of Corsica interrupted Carthaginian-Etruscan ties for a long time.

Trade policy

Carthage can well be called a trading state, since its policy was guided by commercial considerations. Many of its colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded for the purpose of expanding trade.

It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. So in the treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was stipulated that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage.

In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize Rome's borders and respect its people as well as its allies. The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions.

They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their patrimony, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent coasts of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. Carthage did not pay due attention to coinage.

Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued which, if the surviving examples are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coins of Athens and other states, and most transactions were carried out through direct barter.

Carthage before the Punic Wars

In the 6th century BC. e. The Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and entered into an alliance with Tartessus. Initially, the Punes suffered defeats, but Mago I reformed the army, an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. e. In the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated.

The Carthaginian-Etruscan coalition significantly changed the political situation in the Western Mediterranean. After the Battle of Alalia, off the coast of Corsica, the dominance of the Greeks (Phoceans) on the Mediterranean routes was destroyed. After this, Carthage launched a new attack on Sardinia, where colonies were founded on the coast and numerous small Punic settlements in the interior of the island.

The victory at Alalia isolated Tartessus politically and militarily, and in the late 30s - early 20s of the 6th century. BC e. The Carthaginian invaders literally wiped Tartessus off the face of the earth, so the searches of archaeologists trying to discover its location have still not yielded satisfactory results.

Trade remained the main source of Carthage's wealth. Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture was based on the extensive use of slave labor.

There was regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade turnover; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. During the Greco-Persian Wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, and together with the Etruscans an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Himera (480 BC) by a coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades.

The main enemy of the Punics was Syracuse, the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punics.

Rome marches on Carthage

In the 3rd century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations began to deteriorate. This first appeared at the final stage of the war between Rome and Tarentum. But in 264 BC. e. started First Punic War. It was carried out mainly in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of Rome's fleet. Only by 260 BC. e. The Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila.

In 256 BC. e. The Romans moved the fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punic army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. Only in 251 BC. e. In the battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a great victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory and there was a lull.

Hamilcar Barca

In 247 BC. e. Hamilcar Barca became the commander-in-chief of Carthage; thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean toward the Punics, but in 241 BC. e. Rome, having gathered its strength, was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and, after defeat, was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and pay an indemnity of 3,200 talents for 10 years. After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, who were led by Hanno.

Ineffective governance led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly vested him with the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain.

He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, the army chose his son-in-law as commander in chief. Hasdrubal. In 16 years, most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, and a strong army was created in battles. Overall, Carthage became much stronger than it had been even before the loss of Sicily.

Hannibal Barca

After the death of Hasdrubal, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander in chief. All his children - Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - Gamil Kara was brought up in the spirit of hatred of Rome, therefore, having gained control of the army, Hannibal began to look for a reason for war. In 218 BC. e. he captured Saguntum - a Spanish city and an ally of Rome - the war began.

Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around the Alps into Italian territory. There he won a number of victories - at Ticinus, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. e. near the city of Canna, Hannibal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, which resulted in the transfer of a significant part of Italy to the side of Carthage, and the second most important city, Capua.

With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him with significant reinforcements, the position of Carthage became very complicated.

Hannibal's campaigns

Rome soon responded with military action in Africa. Having concluded an alliance with the king of the Numidians, Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punes. Hannibal was called home. In 202 BC. e. In the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace.

Under its terms, they were forced to give Spain and all the islands to Rome, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. Moreover, they had no right fight someone without permission from Rome.

After the end of the war, Hanno, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, the heads of the aristocratic parties, who were hostile towards Hannibal, tried to get Hannibal condemned, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. In 196 BC. e. Rome defeated Macedonia, which was an ally of Carthage, in the war.

Fall of Carthage

Even after losing two wars, Carthage managed to quickly recover and soon became one of the richest cities again. In Rome, trade had long been an essential sector of the economy; competition from Carthage hampered its development. His rapid recovery was also a big concern. The Numidian king Massinissa constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; Realizing that Rome always supported the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures.

All complaints of the Carthaginians were ignored and resolved in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punes were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately made claims regarding the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded the surrender of all weapons, then demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea.

Having asked for a month to think it over, the Punes prepared for war. So it began III Punic War. The city was fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of difficult siege and heavy fighting. Carthage was completely destroyed, and out of a population of 500,000, 50,000 were captured and became slaves. The literature of Carthage was destroyed, with the exception of a treatise on agriculture written by Mago. A Roman province was created on the territory of Carthage, ruled by a governor from Utica.

What's left of Carthage

Carthage was very unprofitable for many. Its position made it possible to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, which prevented foreign ships from sailing further to the west.

Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. The Romans methodically destroyed the city. And then they created their own, Roman Carthage, in its place, founded on the same place in 44 BC. Intensive construction was carried out in Roman Carthage, which destroyed traces of the great city. But the place is not empty even now, Carthage exists.