Ancient ports swallowed up by the sea. Antique ports Ports of the west coast of France
We continue to look at an interesting book from the 18th century called “Hydraulic Architecture, or the Art of Diverting, Raising and Controlling Waters for the Various Needs of Life” (Architecture hydraulique, ou, L'art de conduire, d'elever et de menager les eaux pour les différens besoins de la vie), 1737 In the 1st part of the article, 3 volumes of this book were reviewed. Last, 4th volume, dedicated to the art of port construction, and everything related to their maintenance and defense: forts, lighthouses, locks, drawbridges. But we'll start by looking at ancient ports.
Antique ports
1 Plan of the ancient port of Carthage in Africa, 2 Plan of the ancient port of New Carthage 3 Plan of the ancient port of Alexandria in Egypt, 4 Plan of the ancient port of Athens (present-day Fetina).
Carthage
This is what a modern port looks like Carthage:
It doesn’t seem to look at all like an ancient port, but the size of the water space is about the same. If you believe the scale of the ancient plan, 500 toises on which are equal to 1 km. Then the bay in which the old port was located has approximately 7-8 km in diameter (the new port is 5x10 km - measured in the Planet-Earth program), the island in the middle on which the city was located is approximately 4x5 km. The military port (Port des galeries) was located separately from the commercial port (Port Marchand). But the entrance to the military port was through the commercial one. Description of the port of Carthage given in this book:
“The naval arsenal was located on Cohon Island; its perimeter was approximately 4,000 toises (8 km), lined with the most beautiful stones, the eastern side consisted of vaulted niches capable of sheltering 220 of the strongest ships that were then being manufactured from the heat of the sun. The entrances to these niches were decorated with rich marble columns of the Ionic Order, and at the end there were warehouses for rigging and everything that was needed by the crews of each ship. Two superb porticoes terminated this island at either end; its perimeter, bordered by magnificent piers, included buildings intended to house naval officers; schools where pilots and other students supervising maneuvering were trained. (and I think it was very difficult to maneuver in a confined space with a large number of ships, using only the power of wind and sails (?), my note). There were also docks for repairing the underwater part of the ship and shipyards for the construction and conversion of ships; in a word, every imaginable convenience. In the middle of this island was the palace of the admiral, so elevated that he could see from his house everything that passed in the two ports and beyond. The same splendor was observed in the commercial port, which had to be passed in order to enter the port of warships; its entrance was closed by two large piers, at the ends of which there were 4-story towers, and the distance between them for the passage of ships into the harbor was only 20 tauzes (40 m). Lighthouses were located on the tops of the towers.”
This is what the place that is now believed to have been the Carthaginian port and its reconstruction looks like:
This place is located 2.5 km north of the modern port of Carthage. My opinion: it does not fit the description of the ancient port of Carthage, if only because it is small in size - the diameter of the water circle is only 300 meters, and the diameter of the central island is 130 m. It would not be able to accommodate everything that is present in the description. It was probably a harbor, but built later. On the same principle as Old Carthage, only in a very reduced version.
New Carthage
Nowadays Cartagena is located in the south of Spain. The Romans called it the new Carthage because it was founded by the Carthaginians. At the time of writing, the configuration of some ports had already been changed. For example, New Carthage, at the time of its conquest by the Roman general Scipio in 209 BC, was located on a peninsula connected to the land by a narrow isthmus. Perhaps this island was artificial? And, apparently, it was built according to the principle of old Carthage.
Manuel de la Cruz: View of Cartagena, 1786, oil on canvas, Madrid, Moncloa Palace Now this port looks completely different from how it did in ancient times:
Modern view of the port of Cartagena Alexandria
This is how the book describes the founding of Alexandria:
“The Carthaginian Republic was at its highest point of power when Alexander the Great, after the siege of Tire, laid the foundations of Alexandria in 332 before the birth of Jesus Christ. This prince, having wandered along the shores of Egypt to the western branch of the Nile, noticed between the island of Pharos and Lake Marea (Mareotida - my comment), a place most suitable for realizing the project he had in mind for the construction of a city worthy of bearing his name.
After the death of Alexander the Great, the Ptolemies ( dynasty of rulers of Egypt in the IV-I centuries BC. e. - in the Hellenistic era - approx. my), having Egypt at their disposal, used everything possible to increase the initial glory of Alexandria: he who was called Philadelphus (king of Egypt in 285-246 BC), has contributed most to enriching it with the works necessary to make it the greatest port in the world. He succeeded in annexing the island of Pharos to the mainland by a large dam, which divided the bay into two separate harbors, connected by passages made in the dam and covered by two bridges, each of which was supported by a fortress. Built in the sea, on a foundation that, like the dam's foundation, was over 36 feet (11 m) deep. The eastern entrance to the harbor was difficult due to the rocky shoreline. But on the eastern cape there was a famous lighthouse, which not only illuminated, but also protected access to the port.
This superb building, worthy of being placed among the seven wonders of the world, was executed under the direction of Sostratus, the most skilful architect of his time; its square base, each side of which was 104 toises (208 m) long, on the ground floor of this magnificent building there was a garrison; in the middle was raised a tower of eight floors, each of which set back into a gallery, magnificently decorated, lined with square slabs of white marble of enormous size. At night, on the top of this tower, elevated 75 fathoms (160 m), there was a large fire, visible at sea for 300 stadia, that is, at a distance of about 20 leagues (96 km).
It's a pity there is no description of what served as the source of the fire? And the description of the lighthouse differs from the modern one both in size and appearance. This is a modern idea of what the Alexandria Lighthouse looked like:
Reconstruction of the Alexandria Lighthouse Athens
An old plan incorrectly shows that the port of Piraeus was located near Athens. In fact, there are 8.5 km between them. This is more accurately shown in another diagram:
Map of Piraeus and Athens: the port, consisting of three naturally isolated bays, is connected to the city by a road protected by the Long Walls, a double wall of about 10 km. It is believed that these walls were built in the 5th century BC. to protect the passage from the port to the city of Athens. Subsequently they were destroyed and restored again. A small section of this wall has survived to this day:
Thanks to such a wall, clearing the road connecting the city with the port, the townspeople could withstand long sieges by land, being able to supply food and other goods by sea.
Modern view of the port of Piraeus Syracuse
1 Plan of the port of Syracuse, 2 Plan of the port of Rhodes, 3 plan of the port of Genoa, 4 plan of the port of Messina Sicily, according to the author, is the most favorable island in the Mediterranean for establishing ports. The most beautiful of these ports was located in Syracuse, the capital of Sicily, and had stunning triple fencing, more than 8 leagues in circumference (38.5 km).
aerial view of Ortigia island in Siracusa, Sicily, Italy The ancients loved the number “three”. The next port under consideration on the island of Rhodes also had a triple fortification:
“In former times the harbor of Rhodes was surrounded three rows of fortifications, with extremely high towers, and a deep ditch at the foot of each ring. The first ring surrounded the city beyond the port, and abutted the military arsenal, enclosed in a fortress that included a citadel. The second ring included everything, and the third was built in such a way as to protect the entrance to the harbor from the flanks."
I think many have heard about the Colossus of Rhodes - one of the 7 wonders of the world, built or erected in 280 BC. But for some reason, modern sources are silent about the fact that it was not only a giant statue, but also a lighthouse. This is what is written about him in this book:
“The passage to the inner harbor was between the legs of the colossus, which served as a lighthouse. The colossus was so large that ships passed between its legs with their sails raised. It was planted on the platforms of two towers, each of which was based on a rock. This colossus, which was a 120-foot tall statue of Apollo (36.6 m or approximately a 12-story building - my comment), held a scepter in one hand, and in the other, raised up hand, a hearth, which produced a large flame that served for illumination at night. To maintain the light of this lantern, there was a staircase inside the colossus. The entrance to the inside of the statue was in the sole of the foot. It is said that the Rhodians erected it in honor of Apollo, shortly after Demetrius lifted the siege of the city. It was the first of the Seven Wonders of the World, the work of the sculptor Hares, a student of the famous Lysippos, who took 12 years to build it.
The Saracens, having captured the island of Rhodes in 653, found this colossus lying near the harbor for a long time, destroyed by an earthquake. They sold it to a Jew, who cut it into pieces and collected 7,200 quintals of metal (720 tons); it was worth three hundred talents, or 1,500,000 livres of black coin."
engraving of a colossus from a geographical dictionary with a source of fire in his hand I wonder what they used as a light source? Is it really firewood? Or Greek fire? The author of the book, unfortunately, does not write about this. Or I couldn't find this description in the text. Greek fire (or liquid fire) is a flammable mixture used for military purposes during the Middle Ages. The first prototype of this fire appeared during the defense of the island of Rhodes in 190. BC. (90 years later than the construction of the colossal lighthouse). It was a mixture of crude oil, sulfur and oil. (information taken from the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg, 1890-1907).
modern view of Rhodes Now there are deer in the place of the colossus. Is it difficult to reconstruct a giant statue?
Rhodes. Walls of the old fortress 
Modern view of Rhodes Are these walls really about 2.5 thousand years old?
Sunken cities of the Mediterranean and Black Seas
I will make a small digression in my story, since there is one interesting point regarding all ports located on the Mediterranean Sea and the water areas connected to them. Actually, this is the entire world ocean, by and large? But let’s not cover it so broadly; here we can at least figure it out locally. Everyone understands that the port can only be located at water level. Since he is directly related to it, and his visitors are ships, they do not know how to fly through the air or climb stairs. True, they can overcome some height with the help of locks or special devices, but seaports, as a rule, are located at sea level. And if the sea level rises, then it rises by one amount over the entire area of the water surface. And accordingly, the shore goes under water by the same amount. And, in theory, all ports should be under water after this? All ports built BEFORE the water level rose. There was such a rise in water in the Mediterranean, and, accordingly, in the Black and Azov Seas. Researchers are now finding the ruins of cities lying underwater along the coasts of Italy, Greece and on the opposite side of the Mediterranean Sea.
Flooded city of Pavlopetri, Greece 
Flooded city of Baiae, Bay of Naples, Italy Alexandria, located on the opposite side, is partially flooded:
And the city of Heraklion located not far from it. Now it lies two and a half kilometers from the coast under a 10-meter layer of water.
The ancient city of Acre is considered the Crimean Atlantis:
It was first mentioned in the 4th century BC. And it is believed that the city was completely flooded in the 3rd century AD. The cause of the flooding of the city, as well as other flooded cities, is considered to be an earthquake, as a result of which the coast sank under water. Those. It was not the water that rose, but the land that sank. This may explain the fact that not all ancient Mediterranean and Black Sea ports are now under water, but only some of them. Another option: there was a rise in the water level, and all the ports that have survived to this day were built later.
A large study about the sunken cities of the Black Sea region in series of articles Elena Topsida
Atlantis
Speaking of sunken cities. I discovered an interesting reconstruction of the capital of Atlantis according to Plato’s description:
According to him, this capital was located in a place created by the god Poseidon for his earthly beloved:
“When the girl has already reached marriageable age, and her mother and father have died, Poseidon, inflamed with lust, unites with her; he strengthens the hill on which she lived, separating it from the island along the circumference and fencing it alternately with water and earthen rings (there were two earthen ones, and three water ones) of ever larger diameter, drawn like a compass from the middle of the island and at an equal distance from each other. friend."
Many centuries later, when Poseidon’s beloved had already died, her numerous descendants transformed the place where their Ancestress lived into their capital:
“First of all, they built bridges across the water rings that surrounded the ancient metropolis, building a route from the capital and back to it. ...From the sea they drew a canal 96 m wide and 30 m deep, and 50 stadia (9.6 km) long, right up to the outermost of the water rings: so they created access from the sea to this ring, as if to a harbor, having prepared a sufficient passage even for the largest ships. As for the earthen rings that separated the water rings, near the bridges they dug channels of such width that one trireme could pass from one water ring to another. On top they laid the ceilings under which navigation was to take place: the height of the earthen rings above the surface of the sea was sufficient for this. The largest water ring in circumference, with which the sea was directly connected, had a width of 3 stages (576 m), and the earthen ring that followed it was equal in width; of the next two rings, the water one was 2 stages (384 m) wide and the earthen one was again equal to the water one; finally, the ring of water that encircled the island in the middle was a stadia wide (192 m).”
This description is interesting because it repeats the basic principles of ancient Mediterranean ports and star fortresses: alternating three rings of water with two rings of earth, and a long canal or road (in the case of Athens) connecting the seashore with the city. Were these ports and fortresses built on the principle of the capital of Atlantis? Or were they built at the same time? And Atlantis sank not at all 9000 BC, but at the same time as Alexandria, Heraklion, Bayi, Pavlopetri and the ancient cities of the Black Sea coast? Or were they simply built according to the same principle, now unknown to us?
Fortress of Lille, France The same three water rings and two earthen rings, only not round, but star-shaped.
We return to our ports.
Genoa
From the description in the book it follows that in 206 BC. this city already existed and flourished, which does not coincide with the official version. But personally, I’ve gotten used to it a long time ago.
“At the time when the Romans completed the conquest of Italy, Genoa, one of the most ancient cities of Liguria, was already beautiful and prosperous. It was in its port that the Carthaginian general Mago approached in the year of Rome 548 (206 BC - mine) with a fleet of 30 warships and a large number of transport ships laden with warriors, who joined the Gauls against their common enemies. This port, now richer and more prosperous than ever, is formed by a bay that faces south and is protected by a projecting headland on the east side. Which led to the emergence of a navy among the first inhabitants of Genoa, since in this place the ships were protected from cross winds.”
About Liguria from the encyclopedic dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron:
“The name Liguria comes from the once powerful pre-Indo-European people of the Ligurians, whose sphere of influence in prehistory reached the north of Europe until the Celts drove them back to the Mediterranean coast where they originally came from. The ancestor of the Ligurians was the archaeological culture of square-necked vessels. Under the Romans, the Ligurians were quickly assimilated."
The peoples of Italy in the 6th century BC. e. In general, the Lirugi are a people who lived in Italy before the Romans arrived there. Just like the Etruscans and Illyrians. The question of who the Etruscans and Illyrians were and where the Romans and Greeks came from, who drove them out of these territories, is too big to be considered in this article. The port of Genoa, in my opinion, has remained virtually unchanged since those prehistoric times:
Port of Genoa, modern view Messina
Description of the port of Messina:
“Among the other ports of Sicily, Messina seems to deserve special attention for its position on the strait, called the Lighthouse of Messina, so formidable in the reason for the fury of its currents, underwater reefs and abyss, which the ancients called Scylla and Charybdis, located at their northern entrance, whose passage is so dangerous that when the ships are carried away by the force of the current or the wind, they have no chance of salvation.
If we consider the port of Messina, we cannot deny that it is truly worthy of admiration; it is protected on the eastern side by a peninsula or cape, at the end of which is the castle of San Salvador, which protects the entrance together with batteries, not to mention a citadel, recently built, which commands respect on all sides. This port, which extends along the city, almost 1,500 toises (3 km) in length and width, is in excellent condition."
Modern view of the port of Messina Nothing remains of the fortress of the star and the tower; of the castle of San Salvador there is a wall with a column, obviously built in our time:
Between Scylla and Charybdis or the Hypeborean Whirlpool
It is believed that the expression “Pass between Scylla and Charybdis” means to pass between two mythical monsters, one of which represents a rock, the other a whirlpool:
Mythical monsters, mythical Hyperborea. What do they have in common? And the common thing is the Rock and the Whirlpool. Remember the description from the Mercator map:
“There was an unknown country there, which consisted of four main islands located in a circle around the Pole. Four large inward flowing rivers connected the world's oceans with an inland sea in which a large black rock jutted out exactly at the pole point, 33 nautical miles in circumference and almost reaching to the sky: the Black Rock. This rock was magnetic, which explains why all compasses point north. Due to the speed of the inward flowing water, a large gyre or vortex formed around the rocky island, in which the water eventually disappeared into the depths of the earth."
Perhaps something similar to what the authors of the film “Star Wars Rogue One” tried to portray:
My guess is that the entire continent of Hyperborea was an artificial structure. And perhaps this installation in the center of the continent contributed to the creation of a favorable climate on the continent, and perhaps on the entire planet? Is the Gulf Stream an echo of it? Is the myth of Scylla and Charybdis a description of this installation?
But besides the Gulf Stream, there are also local whirlpools in the world's oceans. They are shown in this diagram:
M2 tide, tide height shown in color. White lines are cotidal lines with a phase interval of 30°. Amphidromic points are dark blue areas where white lines converge. Arrows around these points indicate the direction of the “run around”. Officially, they are not called whirlpools, but amphidromic points. But we read what these points represent:
“An amphidromic point is a point in the ocean where the amplitude of the tidal wave is zero. The height of the tide increases with distance from the amphidromic point. Sometimes these points are called tide nodes: the tidal wave “runs” around this point clockwise or counterclockwise. The cotidal lines converge at these points.”
Some whirlpools spin clockwise, others counterclockwise. They always move at the same speed and make 1 full revolution in 12 hours 25 minutes, i.e. about 2 times a day. This is believed to be due to the rotation of the Moon around the Earth.
And if the Mediterranean ports had complexities in their structure, then the ports of the Atlantic coast of France had (and still have) complexity many times greater. Look at the pattern of whirlpools. The tide in the Mediterranean Sea is practically absent, while off the coast of France it reaches 12 meters in some places. I already wrote about this in part 1, describing the complexities of the Dunkirk port.
Ports of the west coast of France
1 Project for the creation of the port of La Hogue, 2 Project for the port of Cherbourg, 3 Granville, including the project of the port and the inner harbor to be formed there 
Modern view of the port of La Hogue The areas going under water during high tide are clearly visible.
Modern view of the port of Cherbourg Almost nothing remains here from the old port. Round forts at the ends of the pier were built in the mid-19th century. But one of them was destroyed during the 2nd World War:
Fort de l'Est (eastern end of the long sea wall), dilapidated during World War II The second one is alive:
Fort de l'Ouest (western end of the long sea wall) 
Modern view of the port of Granville That's all for now. Until next time.
An illustration of the siege of Carthage from the computer game “Total war rome 2” was used in the design of this article.
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Tiwanaku, or Tiaguanaco, are the ruins of a mysterious ancient city, which is located in the Andes at an altitude of about 4000 meters. This place is located 19 kilometers from the most beautiful lake in South America - Titicaca. Scientists believe that the secrets of this ancient Indian city are connected with it. However, is it Indian? But first things first. Let's start with the lake.
Titicaca is a very beautiful freshwater lake with an area of 8,370 square meters. km. (for comparison, the area of Lake Onega is 9,700 sq. km.). It is located on the Altiplano plateau on the border of Peru and Bolivia at an altitude of 3800 meters and is even navigable. Geologists have discovered very interesting facts from the life of this lake. It turns out that in the past this territory was located much lower, and the lake was a sea bay. This is evidenced by traces of the surf on the rocky shores, as well as the unusual fauna of the reservoir. The high-altitude freshwater lake, located 250 kilometers from the Pacific Ocean and not connected to it by rivers, is inhabited mainly by marine species of fish and crustaceans. Researchers suggest that a terrible geological disaster occurred here in the past, causing a sharp rise in this area of land. In Inca mythology, there are also legends on this occasion, telling about a terrible flood that hit the world.
In the photo: panorama of the Kalasasaya Temple in Tiwanaku This is evidenced by the remains of the city of Tiwanaku, which, according to researchers, was previously a major seaport and was located on the shores of Lake Titicaca. The remains of people found together with household items, fragments of buildings and other objects that are not at all typical of traditional burials speak about the terrible catastrophe that happened. And a number of city buildings resemble a sea promenade. This city was the center of the Andean civilization of the same name. What remains of it raises more questions among researchers than it provides answers. The time of construction of the ancient structure is not precisely determined, and inside the city there are buildings of different ages. In all likelihood, the city was built, completed and rebuilt for more than one millennium. Some researchers believe that the oldest parts of Tiwanaku were built in 200 BC, with later structures dating back to 600-1000 AD.
In the photo: Gate of the Sun
More ancient buildings are noticeably different from the newest buildings. These are, for example, the Gate of the Sun and the Kalasasaya Temple. They are composed of giant slabs with perfectly straight edges, which fit together with amazing precision. Many researchers doubt that all this was built by the Indian civilization. Most likely, these are the ancient remains of a city of a more highly developed civilization unknown to science. And the Indians who came here simply used the preserved foundations and sections of buildings, eventually completing them.
The fact that Tiwanaku and Lake Titicaca are closely related is also evidenced by a relatively recent discovery at the bottom of the lake. In 2000, an underwater temple was discovered here, reached by stone steps, and its age dates back to approximately 500 AD. Moreover, the steps lead to a high mountain path on land. The temple measures 50 by 200 meters, and there is an agricultural terrace near it. The location of the temple at the bottom of the lake also raises a lot of questions and has not yet found an intelligible explanation.
In the photo: the wall of the Kalasasaya temple, laid out in perfectly even blocks The ruins of the city of Tiwanaku are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Research into Lake Titicaca and the ancient city associated with it continues. And there is no doubt that a lot of interesting things related to the ancient civilizations of our planet will still be found here.
To the northwest of Kaliakra there is a wedge-shaped bay, fenced by the impressive Cape Chirakman, the Dobrudzhan plateau and Sheitanbair. The port of Kavarna is located in this bay. In ancient times, on the high plateau of Chirakman, there was a Thracian settlement called Bizone. Probably in the 5th or early 4th century. BC e. Colonists from Messembria settled here. Information about this city in the earliest centuries of its existence is very scarce. Probably, the golden wheat of Scythia Minor (Dobrudzha) attracted Greek traders, who in exchange for it offered products of ancient Greek artisans.
For a long time, life here was calm. Numerous ships anchored in the bay and loaded their cargo. They filled the holds with the products of the rich land of the Getae and Crobids who inhabited this part of ancient Thrace.
But at the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. As a result of a strong earthquake, a significant part of the high terrace of modern Chirakman was torn off and fell into the sea.
Earthquakes were a serious disaster in the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins. Their destructive power can be judged by the legends of many ancient peoples. In addition to the earthquake mentioned above, we have received descriptions of catastrophic tremors that destroyed many cities and settlements in a later era. Such was the earthquake in the Hellespont (Dardanelles) region and on the Cyclades islands; it was also felt in Thrace. In 477, a strong earthquake in Constantinople destroyed many houses and churches, as well as the city walls.
Summer of 1961 and 1962 Underwater archaeological expeditions were organized in order to find the remains of the city of Bizone that sank during the earthquake. It was clear to the leader of the expedition and its participants that they should not expect great success. The collapse of an earthen mass from a considerable height buried the destroyed part of the city. Thus, there was no hope of finding the remains of the city intact. The purpose of the expeditions is more modest - to trace what place the parts of the terrace that disappeared under the water reached, and thus at least approximately determine the space occupied by the ancient city.
The research was carried out in two stages. The first expedition in August 1961 was primarily of a reconnaissance nature - it was supposed to study the underwater landscape and establish conditions for further research. The results were encouraging, and in 1962 the group returned to the bay again. A part of the ancient wall, 1.10 m high, was discovered, located in the east-west direction, built of well-cut limestone stones measuring 75x35 cm. Above it stood a belt of three rows of bricks.
Research near Chirakman confirmed preliminary assumptions: at a distance of 100-150 m from the shore, the bottom is covered with large, randomly lying stones; Among them are smaller stones and fragments of amphorae. According to the head of the study, Goranka Toncheva, ships entered those places where five or more clusters of amphorae were noted. Antique amphorae, mainly with Heraclean seals, and amphorae from the early Byzantine era were also discovered. The latter show that the bay was used as a port in later times. Conducted in 1952-1955. Archaeological studies of Cape Chiracmana, the terrace where the ancient Bizone was located, have established that the existence of the city after the 1st century. BC e., that is, after the ominous earthquake, there was a break. However, according to some sources, the city continued to exist in the Roman and early Byzantine eras. Materials discovered underwater from this period gave reason to assume that he was located near this bay. Indeed, the remains of the Roman city - solid foundations of stone buildings, coins, ceramics, etc. - were discovered in the area of the present port of Kavarna. They indicate the location of the Roman Bison on a low seashore.
Thus, thanks to underwater archeology, the mystery of the sunken city was solved.
However, earthquakes are not the only reason for the death of ancient ports. There was another, outwardly completely invisible, but equally destructive force, which was the reason for the disappearance of many ports.
In 1964, on March 15, a gala evening dedicated to the underwater archaeological expedition near Nessebar took place in the hall of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. The head of the study, senior researcher Ivan Venedikov, gave a report.
Underwater archaeological research in Nessebar
began back in 1960, following an expedition near Cape Masleny. In 1961, the second expedition continued its work. Its goal is to explore the remains of the sunken fortifications of the old city.
Nessebar is located on a small peninsula connected to the land by a narrow isthmus. If you look from the heights of Stara Planina, you will see that the city looks like a large ship moored to the shore. The most ancient population of the small peninsula - the Thracians - also left the name of the settlement - Messembria (from the Thracian Melsembria). During archaeological research on land, traces of Thracian life were discovered in many places: foundations of dwellings and ceramics. The Thracian settlement was fortified with a stone wall, the remains of which were discovered in the northwestern part of the peninsula.
A Greek colony appeared on this site at the end of the 6th century. BC e. and developed mainly as an intermediary in maritime trade between Thrace and the Greek world. Messembria reached the peak of its power in the 4th century. BC e. It was built in the same way as the policies known from those times - self-governing city-states, with their own army and navy. Some inscriptions tell that in Mesembria there were temples of Dionysus, Zeus and Hera, Asclepius, and Apollo. Back in the 5th century. BC e. coins from silver and bronze began to be minted in the city. They were found buried in the ground both in the vicinity of Nessebar and inside the country - in the districts of Haskovskbm, Veliko Tarnovo, Shumen, Silistra; they testify to the extensive trading activity of the city. Messembria maintained trade relations with Egypt, Athens, Pergamon, Korlin, Tanagro in Boeotia, Olbia, Miletus, the islands of Thass, Rhodes, Delos, etc.
As in Apollonia, Roman rule had an unfavorable effect on the fate of Messembria. Although the city authorities, trying to maintain their privileges, hastened to hand over the keys to the city gates to the Romans, the city lost its former brilliant position. Only with the transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople did an era of new prosperity begin for the coast. Its development continued in the Middle Ages. In the fall of 812, the city was occupied by Prince Krum and annexed to the Bulgarian state. The population of neighboring lands called it Nessebar. From that moment on, its role as a port began to grow rapidly.
Particularly favorable conditions for the development of trade have developed in; the period of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom, or more precisely, during the reign of Ivan Alexander. All traders of the then Black Sea and Mediterranean basins visited Nessebar. The city's wealth increased significantly. When in 1366 the crusaders of Amadeus of Savoy occupied and ravaged most of the coast, and the cities, in order to avoid destruction, began to pay them huge sums of money, Nessebar paid the largest amount - 17,558 gold perpers.
The long-term successful development of the peninsular city was explained primarily by the fact that it had strong fortress walls. It was the oldest Thracian fortress. Later they built a wall of large stones, placed one on top of the other without holding them together with mortar. It appeared at the end of the 5th century. BC e., when the peninsula had already become a Greek colony. The largest remains of this fortress wall, about 50 m long, are now preserved along the northwestern bank. The wall has several bizarre curves and runs from west to east, and then strictly at right angles north to the sea. In a slightly modified form, it continued to perform its protective functions until the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century. BC e. It is still not known which wall protected the city during the Roman period.
In the early Byzantine era, the fortress wall was built again (IV-V centuries AD). Like the previous one, it encircled the entire peninsula, but was built strongest in the western part. And this is understandable. As now, in ancient times the only way to access the city by land was a narrow isthmus. Therefore, it was necessary to build the strongest defensive structures here. A powerful fortress wall blocked the path of everyone who approached the city by land. The entrance gate was flanked by two strongly protruding pentagonal towers. Next to them, in front of the fortress wall, which had the shape of a horseshoe, there were two more round towers, which completed this horseshoe.
At the northern end of the western section, behind the round tower, the wall curved and turned northeast, following the contours of the coast. It intersected with another wall, built in a similar way, only extending from the interior of the city in a northern direction and reaching the sea. From the eastern border of the city the wall continued again, following the curves of the coastline. Now that the sea is calm and the weather is clear, the remains of its foundation, located parallel to the shore, are visible under water. How should this break be explained? Maybe the wall went into the sea?
If you climb the preserved wall, which has a south-north direction, where the arch has now been restored, and look closely at the sea, you will notice a pile of stone blocks at a distance of 80 m from the shore. These stone blocks attracted the attention of the first Nessebar light diving expedition. Observations underwater showed that the blocks in the form of a ridge extend all the way to the shore. After archaeologists outlined the ridge with slats protruding from under the water, they established: the line of the stone hump follows in the direction of the destroyed fortress wall, located at the very edge of the land. There was no doubt that the accumulation of stones was not accidental: this was the sunken part of the fortress wall.
In sea water, the ruins are overgrown with algae, covered with shells and are difficult to observe from the surface. The depth at which they are now located (2 m at a distance of 15 m from the shore and 5 m at a distance of 80 m) does not allow any research using the methods of classical land archeology. Only scuba divers can help here.
The study of the sunken remains of ancient cities - residential areas, public buildings, fortress walls, ports - is not the most tempting and enjoyable underwater archeology. Usually preference is given to searching and exploring wrecks. This is more romantic - the sunken ship recorded the last moments of the crew's life, and the cargo, sometimes almost untouched, can tell about distant seas and mysterious countries. The exploration of the sunken parts of old cities is accompanied by more mundane and monotonous activities; work is carried out at shallow depths, usually in close proximity to the shore. Terrestrial archaeological techniques are sometimes used, but underwater they are much more difficult to implement.
Thick algae, mussels and oysters serve as thick armor for the sea, under which it hides the secrets of the past. Centimeter by centimeter, light divers from the Nessebar expedition cleared the underwater wall, photographed and explored it. An accurate map was created and a large amount of factual material was collected. From the silent remains of the walls of that time, the researcher has to recognize the plans of the ancient architect. Two cross-sections of the underwater wall were made - the first at a distance of 16 m from the shore, and the second at a distance of 43 m. In the first section, a wall 3.5 m thick was discovered, i.e. the same as on land. The stone pieces were soldered together with mortar. Moreover, at a distance of 60 m from the shore, part of a brick building was found between stone pieces. This is part of a five-row belt of brick that encircles the fortress wall on all sides and alternates with stonework. The bricks are the same size as those used to build the fortress wall on land. The plaster is also the same - white with crushed bricks. There is no doubt - the stones and bricks located under water are the remains of the continuation of the fortress wall in a northern direction.
What was the purpose of the wall extending beyond the coastline? The head of research in Nessebar, Ivan Venedikov, explains this in an original way. Directly near the corner formed by the western and northern walls, the sea is shallow. The enemy, advancing from the isthmus, could go around this corner, wade through the shallow water or on horseback and attack the less fortified northern wall. To protect the city’s defenders from an unwanted attack from this side, the ancient architect built one “mustache” in continuation of the western wall, which went into the sea to a depth of 5 m. This obliged the enemy to use ships and boats to attack the city from the north. But for the merchant fleet of Messembria, a naval battle was not a problem.
A similar structure extending into the sea was also discovered on the southern side of the fortress. However, it is much more destroyed. Only a few scattered large stones, now used for resting sea gulls, mark the line of the underwater wall.
According to another opinion, these two walls, extending into the sea, provided enough space for ancient ships to moor and at the same time served as a breakwater.
In 9 AD e. On the way to imprisonment in Tom, the Roman poet Ovid passed through Messembria. He notes that the city had more than one port. Probably the first was located on the northern shore, and the second on the southern shore, where the port of the modern city is located.
But in both cases - be it a port or a barrier at sea - the wall had to be built in the water. The method of laying stone pieces and soldering them with mortar is similar to what we see in a wall on land. This shows: sections of the underwater wall were built on dry ground. In addition, this method of construction is not typical for construction in water. There is no doubt that the place where this part of the fortress wall is located was built at the same time as the rest of the defensive structure on land.
The study of other sections of the fortress wall leads to similar conclusions. The northern part of the early Byzantine wall enclosed the peninsula east of the “whisker” protruding into the sea and is now preserved only at the bases, flooded with water.
In subsequent years, underwater archaeological research near Nessebar continued. Efforts were directed towards researching the earlier Greek fortification wall. It has been established that a significant part of it is now under water. Only the base, the lowest rows of stones, has survived. Cleared by light divers, its white line is clearly visible under water, and it is located at a considerable distance from the modern coastline. Research has not yet been completed, and therefore no final conclusions can be drawn about the entire line of the Greek fortress wall and the size of the city that it encircled. We must patiently wait for the full completion of the research near Nessebar, which is being carried out under the scientific leadership of Lyuba Ognenova. In the meantime, let's return
to the sunken walls.
Since 1957, as a result of a series of underwater archaeological expeditions, Soviet scientists methodically explored the underwater areas of such significant ancient ports as Phanagoria, Olbia, Panticapaeum, Chersonesos, etc. In 1958 and 1959. During the study of the sunken parts of Phanagoria, it was established: in the IV-II centuries. BC e. the border of the ancient city passed 185 m north of the modern coastline, i.e. the territory of the city was 15 hectares more known from excavations on land - 37 hectares. It is interesting that in the cultural layer of the IV - III centuries. BC e. there are remains of a paved street that was 3.2 m below modern sea level.
The results of the study near Olbia are no less interesting. This Milesian colony was located on the western shore of the Bug Estuary. Now its ruins have been discovered in the south of today’s village of Parutino, in the Ochakov area of the Nikolaev region. Olbia was located on two terraces - upper and lower, coming close to the bay. For many years, the ruins of the lower terrace were washed by water. During the underwater archaeological research carried out here, the sunken parts of the city were discovered at a distance of 200-230 m from the shore. This suggests that in antiquity the Greek colony bordered the sea at a distance of 250 m from the present coastline.
Sunken parts of ancient settlements were also found in the Kerch Strait, near Chersonesos and other places.
One of the first successes of Romanian underwater archeology was the discovery of sunken walls in the port of Mangalia. Along with amphorae, pieces of tiles, columns, capitals, etc., a basin of an ancient port was discovered. This port, which belonged to the ancient city of Callatis, was surrounded by walls of stone and brick. Now they are filled with water. The configuration of the coast has also changed. It turns out that the flooding process is characteristic not only of the modern port of Mangalia, but also of the entire coastline between Mangalia and Constanta.
The examples given show that over the past 2000-2500 years, many walls and parts of ancient cities located near the coast on low coastal terraces found themselves under water. To explain this phenomenon, we need to turn to geology for help and consider the question of the so-called
eustatic fluctuations in sea level.
It has been established that the Quaternary period in the development of the earth was characterized by significant climate changes. During glaciations, huge masses of water turned into ice; this led to a decrease in the level of the World Ocean. On the contrary, during interglacial periods the amount of water in large basins increased and sea levels rose. It is assumed that the drop in sea level during glaciations was very significant. The last increase, which began 12 thousand years ago, led to the modern level, which stabilized approximately 5-6 thousand years ago.
Fluctuations in the level of the World Ocean, called eustatic, had a significant impact on the formation of the coastline. Studies of sea level fluctuations can explain many facts.
Consideration of these facts in relation to the Black Sea basin leads to interesting observations. If we take the maximum drop in the sea during the most intense glaciation to be 100 m and trace a 100-meter isobath on the modern map of the Black Sea, we will see that with such a drop in level, a significant part of the seabed (40-60 km from the modern coast) was dry land. It is very possible that man in this era lived on land, now immersed in the sea. Traces of his life must be looked for in the territory corresponding to the isobath within a range of up to 100 m, for example in the caves of Kaliakra and Cape Masleny, now flooded with water. This task is interesting and important, but difficult to implement.
A number of discoveries made in recent years provide new insights into the history of the sea. It is believed that climate change and fluctuations in the level of the World Ocean continued in a weaker form during the post-glacial period, that is, over the last 10 thousand years. According to researchers of this period, the greatest warming in Europe occurred approximately 5-6 thousand years ago. But what happened after that? According to one theory, the transgression of the sea, despite individual fluctuations in its level, generally continued steadily. Over the past 20 years, the level of the World Ocean has risen by an average of 2.25 cm. More accurate information exists about the Soviet Black Sea coast. Thus, according to the hydrometeorological stations of Odessa and Kerch over 76 years - from 1880 to 1956, the level of the Black Sea increased by 20-25 cm. According to long-term observations of hydrometeorologists in Odessa and Batumi, the rise in sea level over the past 80 years is widespread, although it varies intensity in different areas. Soviet researchers also found that over the past 6,300 years, sea level has risen by almost 9 m, which corresponds to an average rate of rise of 14 cm per hundred years.
The conclusions drawn from studying rainfall in coastal areas match almost perfectly with the results of underwater archaeological studies. Soviet archaeologist prof. V.D. Blavatsky found that the remains of the street of the ancient city of Phanagoria sank to a depth of about 4 m at a rate of 16 cm per century.
What is the situation on the western Black Sea coast? When we consider the change in sea level over the last three to four millennia, we must keep in mind: it occurred differently in different areas, which is explained by some local changes (lowering or rising) on land. It is believed that with the beginning of the Holocene (the modern geological era that began 10 thousand years ago), the entire western coast of the Black Sea subsided, as a result of which the sea swallowed up part of the land. Maybe then some small islands were formed off the coast, such as Bolshevik, St. Ivan, St. Peter, St. Thomas. The mouths of large rivers - Veleka, Karaagach, Diavolska river, Ropotamo, Aheloy, Khadzhiysk, Dvoinitsa, Kamchia and Batovy - turned into deep-water bays. At the same time, there was an advance of the sea, known as the New Black Sea transgression. As a result, the level of the Black Sea rose by 5 m. When did this process begin? At what rate did it continue over the millennia? Was it the same for all areas? These questions can only be answered after research.
flooded monuments on the western Black Sea coast.
A large amount of pottery recovered from a depth of 6-8 m shows that there was a prehistoric settlement at Cape Atiya. The earliest objects recovered date back to around 3200-3000 BC. e. Consequently, at this place over the course of 5 thousand years, the sea level rose by 8 m.
In August 1958, children playing in the shallow waters of Lake Burgas (Vayakoig) found two amphorae. It was established that there was a burial place here according to the rite of cremation. The ashes of the burnt man are placed in a red-figured vessel with an interesting scene of a festival in honor of Dionysius depicted on it, and the vessel itself is tightly closed with part of another amphora. Two years later, in the spring of 1960, another burial was discovered at the same place. The ashes were placed in a red-figure crater, an elegant work of ancient Greek art. In both cases, burials took place on land. Now, however, the remains are at the bottom of the lake. There is no doubt that this necropolis, which belonged to the neighboring ancient settlement in the Sweet Wells area, was subsequently flooded by the water of the lake, which was previously connected to the sea. Items found in the necropolis date back to the end of the 5th, beginning of the 4th centuries. BC e.
The materials discovered north of the Izgrev area in Burgas probably also belong to a sunken prehistoric settlement. They date back to the 4th millennium BC. e. To get a more realistic idea of the western coast of the Black Sea over the past few millennia, when water advanced onto the land, flooding ports and necropolises, to these traces of the past we must add the sunken walls of Nessebar fortifications and the water-swept pool of the port of Callatis.
However, we have not listed all the sunken monuments or parts thereof that have been discovered so far along the coast, since it is unknown whether they were on land, sank into the sea, or built under water. It is also unknown at what level the walls and other structures, now flooded with water, were built, whether on the shore itself, at the then water level, or on the first lowest terrace, etc. Only after measuring each item found, after discovering other sunken parts From ancient cities and settlements, you can get a more accurate idea of changes in sea level in a new geological era.
Clearly aware of the incompleteness of observations, it can still be argued that along the coast, the sunken monuments of which we are considering, over the past 5 thousand years the sea level has been steadily rising; in some areas the rate of sea level rise coincides with that known on the Soviet coast - 16 cm per century.
The extent of sea level rise is important to study
ancient coast ports.
All information about busy shipping over many centuries indicates that there were also convenient ports along the coast. The assertions of Ovid and Arian about the presence of one or two ports in many places along the western bank of Pontus are not without foundation. These ports were the objects of special attention in the treaties concluded by the coastal cities. Thus, in the Decree of the Council and People's Assembly of the city of Messembria in honor of the Thracian ruler Sadal, it is noted, along with other honors, that his ships have the right to enter and exit the Messembrian port. Records of the right to “enter and leave” are found in ancient documents of other coastal cities.
And in ancient times, the export and import of goods were associated with the payment of the corresponding duty, which was a significant part of the income of coastal cities. Therefore, the city authorities were interested in building ports.
To create a convenient port, certain natural conditions were necessary and, above all, a bay well protected from dangerous north-eastern winds. The location of the entrance to the bay from the sea was of great importance - it had to be convenient for the passage of ships under sail. If natural conditions were not good enough, breakwaters had to be built. In the early era, when building them, large stone blocks were laid under water. It was practiced to build breakwaters under water and with the help of smaller stones. Near the bay on the shore, piers were built and holes were made in the stones or special metal rings were provided to hold ships. Usually the ships were anchored in the port basin and at the same time tied to the pier with a long rope. Entrances to ports were marked by towers, often decorated with sculpted figures. Chains were lowered between these towers to prevent anyone from entering the port without permission. At the entrance to one of the four ports of Miletus, there were two lions - strict guardians of the city and its sea gates. The role of two marble lions, raised from the bottom of the Taman Bay near ancient Phanagoria, was probably similar.
Significant successes in the construction of ports were noted in the Hellenistic era. Trade increased, and with it shipping increased, which required large and reliable ports. In the Mediterranean, such ports were built in Piraeus, on the island of Delos, Miletus, Corinth and other places. Thus, on Delos, which in the Hellenistic era became a truly international center on a large scale, due to the favorable configuration of the coast, there were several ports. The most famous was the sacred port of Delos (trading port), where a large sanctuary of Apollo was located. According to some reports, here in the Hellenistic era, along with other goods, 10 thousand slaves were sold every day. The total length of the berths in the ports of Delos was 1700-1800 linear meters. m. During the construction of berths, small pools fenced with breakwaters were also used.
No less grandiose for its time was the gateway of Athens to the sea world - the port of Piraeus. The large port provided space for the simultaneous mooring of 372 ships. Its construction cost 1000 talents, or 6 million drachmas, which is equivalent to 26 tons of silver.
The convenient geographical location of Miletus - the founder of the colonies on the western bank of Pontus - allowed him to build four ports. The pier of the lion's port was built of large marble stones and had a width of 18 m.
Naval structures achieved significant development during the Roman era. And then they continued to use natural bays, and the construction of breakwaters was carried out successfully, without any special difficulties. The most accurate idea of the construction of the port in antiquity can be obtained from the work of the Roman engineer and architect Vitruvius (about 70-20 BC), entitled “On Architecture 10 Books”. The twelfth chapter of the fifth book is devoted to port facilities *.
* (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio. 10 books about architecture. Per. A. V. Mishulina. L., Sotsekgiz, 1936, book, 5, ch. 12 "On harbors and structures on the water", p. 149. - Approx. ed.)
According to Vitruvius, “... if there is no convenient natural place to protect ships from storms, but some river flows in these places and there is a bay (parking place), it is necessary to artificially build piers from stones or make embankments, i.e. . to build harbor fences. Stone structures in water should be built as follows: bring Puteolan * sand from the areas extending from Kum to Cape Minevra, and mix it with a solution of lime in the ratio of two parts sand to one part lime."
* (Puteolan - from the Latin terra puzzolan - calcareous soil.)
Further, Vitruvius advises to lower boxes of oak boards tightly tied to each other, filled with stones and mortar, into the water at the chosen place. Vitruvius gives instructions on how to build underwater breakwaters in rough water and in awkward places. It follows from this that at the turn of the 1st century. BC e. and I century. n. e. the construction of complex structures that made it possible to equip large and convenient ports did not present an insurmountable engineering problem.
What were the ports on the western bank of Pontus like in ancient times? Unfortunately, we cannot say anything definite about this. Cities such as Apollonia or Messembria, located on peninsulas jutting out far into the sea, had piers for ships on both sides of the peninsula.
Studies conducted in 1967 and 1969 were successful. Naval Museum of Constanta in the Gulf of Mangalia. Remains of breakwaters and piers discovered underwater show that the ancient port at Callatis was located on the shore of a small bay, and the builders made good use of its convenient location.
It is possible that both walls in Nessebar (Greek and early Byzantine), which are now under water, were part of the fortress wall and were built in such a way as to close the port from the north-east winds and create a calm basin for ships to dock. The configuration of the peninsula at that time is not entirely clear. Research into the foundations of walls located under water is also not moving forward. Obviously, further searches in this direction can clarify a lot. It is possible that ancient forests along the coast played a major role, traces of which are difficult to find. What is the importance of breakwaters? As a result of underwater archaeological research, the remains of several breakwaters were found.
All light divers who have completed training or retraining in the Sozopol Bay area know that south of the small island of St. Kirik, in the direction of the small lighthouse, there is an underwater wall - a breakwater. It is built from rounded stones of various sizes. The base of the underwater wall is relatively wide. Now it is located at a depth of 3-4 m. Was this breakwater always under water or during the period of its use it rose above the water and served as protection from waves and winds? Without special research it is difficult to say anything.
It can be assumed that under the wall of today's breakwater, which connects the island of St. Kirik with the peninsula and gives a certain shape to the port of Sozopol from the northeast, there was an older breakwater. At the same time, taking into account the transgression of the sea and the rise in its level in the last two thousand years, the question arises: was this area now flooded by water or land?
A breakwater, similar in construction method to that discovered in the port of Sozopol, was also opened in Varna Bay. It starts from the Cote d'Azur and fences off a section of the bay in the south-north direction. As established during underwater archaeological research, this breakwater, 4 to 4.5 m high, stretches perpendicular to the shore for 250 m. Its highest surviving part is located 2 - 2.5 m below sea level. The cross-section of this breakwater, like the breakwater in the port of Sozopol, is similar, according to G. Toncheva (the head of research near the Cote d'Azur), to a hill, rounded at the top.
Underwater breakwater near the Cote d'Azur near Varna. (Scheme by engineer A. Bedzhev in the book “Drowned Ports” by G. Toncheva)
The structure of the underwater breakwater opened under the lighthouse of Cape Palata is the same in general terms. It is built in the direction from south to north and is made of large, properly hewn stones.
In the port of Balchik, during dredging work, a 2.55 m thick wall was discovered underwater. One of the raised stones was a limestone block measuring 70x50x40 cm. The wall is located parallel to the new breakwater and continues into the sea. What is this - a breakwater, a pier of the ancient port of Kruni - Dionysopolis or a sunken part of some other wall?
All walls known so far along the western Black Sea coast, flooded with water, which can be considered breakwaters, are characterized by two features: they are built from heaped stones without mortar, i.e. under water; their height does not exceed modern sea level. We cannot yet say whether they were at water level or rose above the water. There are suggestions, not without reason, that this type of structure did not rise above sea level, but broke the waves from below. There is no data on their dating.
All the sunken structures indicate that the advance of the sea onto the land, which has been observed in the last five thousand years of the development of civilization, was the most important reason for the change in the coastline, as well as the reason for the disappearance of many piers and quarters of old cities.
Updated: June 30, 2018On the western coast of the island of Crete is the amazing archaeological treasure of Falasarna - an ancient port, unique in the world and unique of its kind. This place takes us back centuries to a long-lost culture that left behind many mysteries and traces of its existence. The combination of unique natural phenomena associated with the fall and rise of sea levels in the western part of the island of Crete, as well as a powerful destructive earthquake in 365 AD, created an artificial harbor and raised land from the sea, revealing the treasures of the great civilization that flourished during the time of Alexander the Great.
Archaeologist Elpida Hadzidaki devoted 20 years of her life to the research and excavations of ancient Falasarna so that we could see the ancient Acropolis, two cemeteries and the ancient port.
The uniqueness of the ancient port of Falasarna
The artificial harbor of ancient Falasarna was built in the 4th century BC. during the time of Alexander the Great using a method combining Phoenician and ancient Greek shipbuilding technologies.
One of the most powerful earthquakes in the entire history of the Earth, which occurred in 365 AD. e. led to the disappearance of Falasarna and its culture, but left a unique legacy for contemporaries. The uplift of the western part of Crete led to changes in the underwater infrastructure, bringing port facilities onto land, which allowed archaeologists to explore the bottom of the sea...on land.
Two years ago, a large part of the ancient embankment was discovered, which was perfectly preserved. Even the mooring sites of triremes (warships) with traces of ropes have been preserved, and there are no analogues to such finds anywhere else in the world.
Various flood protection structures and traces were also found, which indicate that there was previously a flood in Falasarna, and people were looking for ways to protect themselves from natural disasters.
The Rise and Fall of Ancient Falasarna
Falasarna has been inhabited since Neolithic and pre-Minoan times. Many people here were destroyed during the Bronze Age during earthquakes, so the frightened inhabitants left Falasarna for 2000 years. Then, around the 8th - 7th century BC, the Dorians from Laconia came to Falasarna and began building a new settlement on the old ruins.
A state was created that operated in a normal legal regime and had a political system, which became the impetus for the development of a progressively developing society. Falasarna was one of the first cities to have laws engraved in stone and placed in temples (especially early in the era). The state had a Doric system of government like Sparta, but without a king. There were no kings, there were rulers, a senate, a national assembly and slaves. In general, there was a democratic system, as was the case at that time in Athens, Sparta and other Greek cities.
The main economic direction of Falasarna was the sea routes, thanks to which it was an international trade center with broad economic and cultural ties with the peoples of the east.
At the excavation site in Falasarna, many coins were found from various ancient cities of Crete, such as: Kydonia, Polyrhinia, Eleftherna, Aptera, as well as from Sicily. Which means that there was trade and exchange of products. Vessels from Egypt, with which trade relations developed, were also found.
Falasarna's naval superiority was so great that she controlled the entire coast of the western part of the island of Crete from Cape Krios to the island of Antikythera. Thalasarna flourished from the 4th century BC, when Persian gold began to enter the Greek world in order to stop Alexander the Great's advance against King Darius and his empire. In Falasarna, with money received from the Persians, they began to increase the height of the city walls and erect military buildings.
One of the sources of income for the city-state of Falasarna was piracy and the organized slave trade, which in turn provoked the wrath of Rome. Falasarna was first destroyed by the Romans in 67 BC. during the famous expedition of Pompey the Great against pirates from Cilicia (in ancient times, the southeastern region of Asia Minor), as well as during the military operation of the commander Quintus Caecilius Metellus against the Cretan cities.
Analysis of data obtained from excavations shows that after the destruction caused by the Romans, there were two major natural disasters in Falasarna. According to stratigraphic data, the first disaster occurred in 66 AD, it was a tsunami from a strong earthquake. The second and final blow to Falasarna came from the largest earthquake in human history in 365 AD, when the western part of the island of Crete rose 6.5 meters from the depths of the sea in a few seconds, after which a huge tsunami covered the port with tons of mud and sea water. sediments for 1600 years.
A glorious civilization that flourished for 300 years is lost and remains buried underground in Falasarna, waiting to rise to the surface again centuries later.
Pierre Tallet, a professor at the University of Paris at the Sorbonne, told Haaretz (Israel) that in 2013 in Egypt, on the shores of the Red Sea, in the Wadi al-Jarf area, archaeologists discovered a port, which, according to experts, was built 4,600 years ago. The port, in all likelihood, served to deliver materials for the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza (Pyramid of Cheops). Pierre Tallet's group found this ancient harbor not far from the huge archive of papyri they discovered, which is the oldest of all known repositories. A small portion of these finds was exhibited at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo in the summer of 2016.
They describe the structure of the state, the daily life of the pyramid builders, and the process of transporting building materials from the port to Giza. The ancient documents are very well preserved: the length of some sheets reaches a whole meter. The discovery finally refutes naive stories about the use of mysterious technologies inaccessible to modern man. In addition, the archive contained accounting records - tables displaying daily or monthly supplies of food from different places, including the Nile Delta. They mainly transported bread and beer for the port workers. Since the harbor is located far from Giza, it was most likely that ships loaded with copper and minerals from which construction tools were made came into it.
Pierre Tallet believes that the open port gives an idea of how Cheops ruled, ordered and organized his subordinates almost 5 thousand years ago. The pharaoh was not only a great pyramid builder, but also a merchant, because the ancient Egyptians traded in all the coastal cities of the Red and Mediterranean Seas. Ancient Egypt is inextricably linked with ship craft; sailing boats could sail up to 80 kilometers a day and were used not only for trade, but also for military operations.
Talle told Haaretz that the buildings were likely storage areas for food and materials for workers, overnight accommodations for sailors, and administrative centers that were responsible for running the port. Near them, 99 stone anchors were excavated with red inscriptions - the names of the ships; some anchors even had preserved ropes tied to them. Impressive organization for such an ancient era!
However, modern Egyptologists doubt the “black legends about Cheops” and believe that Herodotus overestimated the required number of pyramid builders. According to Pierre Tallet, recent calculations have shown that in fact 5 thousand people are needed for construction, or, if we take into account the people who delivered raw materials to Giza, no more than 15 thousand people. Another misconception is that the Egyptians were treated like slaves at the construction site. In reality, they were free artisans who served under the royal administration, and, judging by the records on the papyri found, they were quite privileged persons.
